Deva Pala (Deva Pala the Great), (ruled 810–850 CE) was a powerful emperor from the Pala Empire of Bengal region in the Indian Subcontinent. He was the third king in the line and had succeeded his father, emperor Dharamapala (ruled 770–810 CE). He inherited a great empire built by his father but he also made his own significant contributions to it to expand its frontiers].

Though not much is known about the details of his military campaigns, he is said to have exacted tributes from whole of northern India from Himalayas to Vindhyas and from east to west ocean . More specifically, the inscriptions reveal that his victorious military compaigns led him as far as to Kamboja of northwest and Deccan in the south and that he exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the Hunas, and humbled the lords of GurjaraPratiharas and the Dravidas.
Information provided by these inscriptions bears witness to Devapala's encounter with the Kambojas of Kabolvalley, which nation, since remote antiquity, had been known for its quality war horses[citation needed]. The Monghyr Charter also bears witness to the fact that the Palas recruited their war horses from this Kamboja of the northwest. King Devapala definitely had some sort of relations with the north-west borderland of India (i.e. Kamboja) which fact also appears probable from his connections with Viradeva, a scholar from Nagarahara, Jalalabad near Kabul whom he had appointed to the post of Abbot of Nalanda in south Bihar [8]. Probably, Devapala had brought Viradeva during his military expedition to Kamboja in north-west.

Dionysius I or Dionysius the Elder (ca. 432–367 BC, Greek: Διονύσιος ο Πρεσβύτερος) was a Greek tyrant of Syracuse, in what is now Sicily, southern Italy. He conquered several cities in Sicily and southern Italy, opposed Carthage's influence in Sicily and made Syracuse the most powerful of the Western Greek colonies. He was regarded by the ancients as an example of the worst kind of despot—cruel, suspicious and vindictive.

Dionysius the Elder’s victory over the democratic Syracuse represents both the very worst and the very best of the mercenary-leader. Dionysius’ career as a despot occurred after he was given six hundred personal mercenaries to guard his person after faking an attack on his own life. He was able to increase this guard to one thousand and gradually consolidated his power and established himself as a tyrant. He imposed his mercenaries on all parts of the polis community. Such an act would have truly wiped out any suggestion that democracy was still in force. His rule was “unconstitutional and illegitimate and could not fail to provoke rebellions among the partisans of democratic government”.[2] Dionysius’ position at home would be threatened even as early as 403 by those philosophically opposed to tyranny. Interestingly, Sparta, which had in the past deposed tyrants from Corinth to Athens, did not damn Dionysius and his autocracy. In fact relations between the two were very positive:
When the Lacedaemonians had settled the affairs of Greece to their own taste, they dispatched Aristus, one of their distinguished men, to Syracuse, ostensibly pretending that they would overthrow the government, but in truth with intent to increase the power of the tyranny; for they hoped that by helping to establish the rule of Dionysius they would obtain his ready service because of their benefactions to him.
[3]
Dionysius would even have the privilege of being allowed to conscript mercenaries from lands under Spartan authority. The demise of a prominent democratic polis in the classical world and the subsequent tenure of Dionysius represented what would become a recurring norm in fourth century Greece, thanks to the prevalence of mercenaries. The mercenary and the tyrant went hand-in-hand; Polybius for example noted how “the security of despots rests entirely on the loyalty and power of mercenaries”.[4] Aristotle wrote how some form of ‘guard’ (viz. a personal army) is needed for absolute kingship,[5] and for an elected tyrant a very particular number of professional soldiers should be employed; too few undermines the tyrants power and too many threatens the polis itself. The philosopher notes how based on this observation, the people of Syracuse were warned to not let Dionysius conscript too many ‘guards’ during his reign.[6]

He carried on war with Carthage from 397 BC to 392 BC with varying success;[1] his attempts to drive the Carthaginians entirely out of the island of Sicily failed, and at his death they were masters of at least a third of it. He also carried on an expedition against Rhegium capturing it [1] and attacking its allied cities in Magna Graecia. In one campaign, in which he was joined by the Lucanians, he devastated the territories of Thurii and Croton in an attempt to defend Locri.
After a protracted siege he took Rhegium (386), and sold the inhabitants as slaves. He joined the Illyrians in an attempt to plunder the temple of Delphi, pillaged the temple of Caere (then allied with Rome) on the Etruscan coast. In the Adriatic, to facilitate trade, Dionysius founded Ancona, Adria and Issa.[7] After him Adriatic became a sea of Syracuse. In the Peloponnesian War he espoused the side of the Spartans, and assisted them with mercenaries.
In 385 BC Alcetas of Epirus was a refugee in Dionysus' court. Dionysus wanted a friendly monarch in Epirus and so sent 2,000 Greek hoplites and five hundred suits of Greek armour to help the Illyrians under Bardyllis in attacking the Molossians of Epirus. They ravaged the region and killed 15,000 Molossians, and Alcetas regained his throne.[8] Sparta however intervened;[9] under Agesilaus and with aid from Thessaly, Macedonia and the Molossians themselves, the Spartans expelled[10] the Illyrians.[11]

According to others, he was poisoned by his physicians at the instigation of his son, Dionysius the Younger who succeeded him as ruler of Syracuse. His life was written by Philistus, but the work is not extant.
Additionally, it is said that upon hearing news of his play, The Ransom of Hector, winning the competition at the Lanaean festival at Athens, he celebrated so fiercely that he drank himself to death. Others report that he died of natural causes shortly after learning of his play's victory in 367 BC. The third theory suggests that "The Company", of which he was a member, had taken revenge on his earlier purges and taxation imposed upon them, in an attempt to raise money for the war with Carthage.

Like Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, Dionysius was fond of having literary men about him, such as the historian Philistus, the poet Philoxenus, and the philosopher Plato, but treated them in a most arbitrary manner. Once he had Philoxenus arrested and sent to the quarries for voicing a bad opinion about his poetry. A few days later, he released Philoxenus because of his friends' requests, and brought the poet before him for another poetry reading. Dionysius read his own work and the audience applauded. When he asked Philoxenus how he liked it, the poet replied only "Take me back to the quarries."[citation needed]
He also posed as an author and patron of literature; his poems, severely criticized by Philoxenus, were hissed at the Olympic games; but having gained a prize for a tragedy on the Ransom of Hector at the Lenaea at Athens, he was so elated that he engaged in a debauch which proved fatal.
His name is also known for the legend of Damon and Pythias, and he features indirectly (via his son) in the legend of the Sword of Damocles. The Ear of Dionysius in Syracuse is an artificial limestone cave named after Dionysius.

In 402 BC Dionysius I began building the Circuit Walls of Syracuse. They were completed in 397 BC and had the following characteristics:
· Length: 27 kilometers
· Width at base: 3.3 m to 5.35 m
· Number of known towers on circuit: 14 (including Euryalos)
· Largest tower: 8.5 m x 8.5 m
· Deepest ditch (at Euryalos fortress): 9 m
Building so big a fortress would have involved installing well over 300 tons of stone every day for 5 years.[12]

29- فرديناند الأول من ليون وقشتالة

There is some disagreement concerning the order of birth of Sancho III's son, and of Ferdinand's place among them. He was certainly a younger son, and he was probably born later than 1011, when his parents' marriage is first recorded. Most, and the most reliable, charters name Sancho's sons in the order Ramiro, García, Gonzalo, then Ferdinand. Three documents from the Cathedral of Pamplona list them in this way,[3] as well as four from the monastery of San Juan de la Peña.[4] One charter from Pamplona, dated 29 September 1023, is witnessed by Sancho's mother, Jimena Fernández, his wife Mayor, her children, listed García, Ferdinand then Gonzalo, and their brother, the illegitimate Ramiro.[5]
In five documents of the monastery of San Salvador de Leire, Ferdinand is listed after Gonzalo.[6] Two of these are dated to 17 April 1014. If authentic, they place Ferdinand's birth before that date.[7] Three further documents from Leire are among the only ones to place Ferdinand second among the legitimate sons, but they suffer from various anachronisms and interpolations.[8] Two preserved diplomas of Santa María la Real de Irache also put Gonzalo ahead of him.[9] On the basis of these documents, Gonzalo Martínez Díez places Ferdinand third of the known legitimate sons of Sancho III (Ramiro being a bastard born before his marriage to Mayor), and his birth no earlier than 1015.[2] The Crónica de Alaón renovada, which Martínez Díez dates to 1154, but which other scholars dismiss as a late medieval concoction, lists García, Ferdinand and Gonzalo as Sancho III's sons by Mayor in that order, but in the same passage mistakenly places Gonzalo's death before his father's.[10]

Count of Castile (1029–37)

Ferdinand was barely in his teens when García Sánchez, Count of Castile, was assassinated by a party of exiled Castilian noblemen as he was entering the church of John the Baptist in León, where he had gone to marry Sancha, sister of Bermudo III, King of León. In his role as feudal overlord, Sancho III of Navarre nominated his younger son Ferdinand, born to the deceased count's sister Mayor, as count of Castile. Although Sancho was recognised as the ruler of Castile until his death, Ferdinand was granted the title "count" (comes) and was prepared to succeed in Castile. On 7 July 1029, before a council in Burgos, the capital of Castile, Óneca, aunt of the late García and queen Mayor, formally adopted Sancho and Mayor, making them her heirs. The record of the council is the first recorded instance of Ferdinand bearing the title of count.[11] A later charter from the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña, dated 1 January 1030, explicits lists Sancho as king in León (the overlord of Castile) and Ferdinand as count in Castile.[12] The first indication that Ferdinand was independently reigning de facto over Castile, or was at least recognised as count in his own right, is a charter of 1 November 1032 from the monastery of San Pedro de Arlanza, which does not mention his father, but dates it to the time of "Fernando Sánchez bearing the county".[13] Sancho's decision to name his son as count in Castile preserved its high degree of autonomy, although no Castilian document after 1028 is dated by the reign of Bermudo III nor is he ever named as king of León. The only sovereign whose regnal year was used was Sancho III, making Ferdinand the first count of Castile not to recognise the suzerainty of the king of León.[14]
Sancho III arranged for Ferdinand to marry García of Castile's intended bride, Sancha of León, in 1032.[1] The lands between the Cea and Pisuerga rivers went to Castile as her dowry. After his father's death on 18 October 1035, Ferdinand continued to rule in Castile, but he was not, as many later authors have it, king of Castile. Contemporary documents stress his status as count and his relationship of vassalage to the king of León. A document issued by his brother Ramiro on 22 August 1036 at San Juan de la Peña was drawn while "emperor Bermudo [was] reigning in León and count Ferdinand in Castile, king García in Pamplona, king Ramiro in Aragon, and king Gonzalo in Ribagorza."[15] Two private Castilian documents dated 1 January 1037 both express Ferdinand's continuing vassalage to the Leonese monarch explicitly, dating themselves by the reign of "king Bermudo and Ferdinand, count in his realms".[16]
In a dispute over the territory between the Cea and Pisuerga, Ferdinand, nominally a vassal of Bermudo III, defeated and killed his suzerain at the Battle of Tamarón on 4 September 1037.[1] Ferdinand took possession of León by right of his wife, who was the heiress presumptive, and on 22 June 1038 had himself formally crowned and anointed king in León.[1]

King of León (1037–65)

Relations with Navarre

On 15 September 1054, Ferdinand defeated his elder brother García at the Battle of Atapuerca and reduced Navarre to a vassal state under his late brother's young son, Sancho García IV. Although Navarre at that time included the traditionally Castilian lands of Álava and La Rioja, Ferdinand demanded the cession only of Bureba.[1] Over the next decade, he gradually extended his control over more of the western territory of Navarre at the expense of Sancho IV, although this was accomplished peacefully and is only detectable in the documentary record.[17]

Relations with al-Andalus

War with Zaragoza

The Chronicon complutense, probably written shortly after Ferdinand's death, extols him as the "exceedingly strong emperor" (imperator fortissimus) when mentioning the siege of Coimbra.[26] After his death, Ferdinand's children took to calling him "emperor" and "the great" (magnus). In 1072, Alfonso, Fedinand's second son, referred to himself as "offspring of the Emperor Ferdinand".Two years later (1074), Urraca and Elvira referred to themselves as "daughters of the Emperor Ferdinand the Great [or, the great emperor Ferdinand]".In a later charter of 1087, Ferdinand is referred to first as "king", then as "great emperor", and finally just as "emperor" alongside his consort, who is first called "queen" then "empress".
In the fourteenth century a legend appeared in various chronicles according to which the Pope, the Holy Roman Emperor, and the King of France demanded a tribute from Ferdinand. In certain versions the Pope is named Urban (although it could not have been either Urban I or Urban II) and in other versions Victor (which is plausibly identifiable with Victor II).[30] Ferdinand was prepared to pay, but one of his vassals, later known as El Cid, who in reality was a youth during Ferdinand's reign, declared a war on the Pope, the Emperor and the Frank, and the latter rescinded their demand. For this reason "Don Fernando was afterwards called ‘the Great’: the peer of an emperor".[31] In the sixteenth century this account re-appeared, extended and elaborated, in Juan de Mariana, who wrote that in 1055, at a synod in Florence, the Emperor Henry III urged Victor II to prohibit under severe penalties the use of the imperial title by Ferdinand of León.[32]
This story is generally regarded as apocryphal, although some modern authors have accepted it uncritically or seen a kernel of historical truth in it. Spanish historian A. Ballesteros argued that Ferdinand adopted the title in opposition to Henry III's imperial pretensions.[33] German historian E. E. Stengel believed the version found in Mariana on the grounds that the latter probably used the now lost acts of the Council of Florence.[34] Juan Beneyto Pérez was willing to accept it as based on tradition and Ernst Steindorff, the nineteenth-century student of the reign of Henry III, as being authentically transmitted via the romancero.[35] Menéndez Pidal accepted the account of Mariana, but placed it in the year 1065.[36]

Frederick II (German: Friedrich II.; 24 January 1712 – 17 August 1786) was a King in Prussia (1740–1772) and a King of Prussia (1772–1786) from the Hohenzollern dynasty. In his role as a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, he was also Elector of Brandenburg. He was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. He became known as Frederick the Great (Friedrich der Große) and was nicknamed Der Alte Fritz ("Old Fritz").
Interested primarily in music and philosophy and not the arts of war during his youth, Frederick unsuccessfully attempted to flee from his authoritarian father, Frederick William I,
with childhood friend Hans Hermann von Katte, whose execution he was forced to watch after they had been captured.
Upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning military acclaim for himself and Prussia. Near the end of his life, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by conquering Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland.
Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism. For years he was a correspondent of Voltaire, with whom the king had an intimate, if turbulent, friendship. He modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm. Frederick patronized the arts and philosophers, and wrote flute music. Frederick is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. Because he died childless, Frederick was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II of Prussia, son of his brother, Prince Augustus William of Prussia.

Youth
Frederick was born in Berlin, the son of King Frederick William I of Prussia and Sophia Dorothea of Hanover. The so-called Soldier-King, Frederick William had developed a formidable army and encouraged centralization, but was also known for his authoritarianism and temper.
Sophia, on the other hand, was well-mannered and well-educated. Her father, George, Elector of Hanover, was the heir of Queen Anne of Great Britain. George succeeded as King George I of Great Britain in 1714.
The birth of Frederick was welcomed by his grandfather with more than usual pleasure, as two of his grandsons had already died at an early age. Frederick William wished his sons and daughters be educated not as royalty, but as simple folk.
He had been educated by a Frenchwoman, Madame de Montbail, who later became Madame de Rocoulle, and he wished that she educate his children.
Frederick was brought up by Huguenot governesses and tutors and learned French and German simultaneously. In spite of his father's desire that his education be entirely religious and pragmatic, the young Frederick, with the help of his tutor Jacques Duhan, procured for himself a three thousand volume secret library of poetry, Greek and Roman classics, and French philosophy to supplement his official lessons.[2]
Although Frederick William I was raised a devout Calvinist, he feared he was not of the elect. To avoid the possibility of Frederick being motivated by the same concerns the king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination. Although he was largely irreligious, Frederick adopted this tenet of Calvinism, despite the king's efforts. Some scholars have speculated that the crown prince did this to spite his father.
Crown Prince
In 1732, Queen Sophia Dorothea attempted to orchestrate a dual marriage of Frederick and his sister Wilhelmina with Amelia and Frederick, the children of her brother, King George II of Great Britain. Fearing an alliance between Prussia and Great Britain, Field Marshal von Seckendorff, the Austrian ambassador in Berlin, bribed Field Marshal von Grumbkow and Benjamin Reichenbach, the Prussian Minister of War and Prussian ambassador in London, respectively. The pair discreetly slandered the British and Prussian courts in the eyes of the two kings. Angered by the idea of the effete Frederick being so honored by Britain, Frederick William presented impossible demands to the British, such as Prussia acquiring Jülich and Berg, leading to the collapse of the marriage proposal.[4]
Frederick found an ally in his sister, Wilhelmina, with whom he remained close for life. At age 16, Frederick had formed an attachment to the king's 13-year-old page غلام يعمل في خدمة فارس وصيف, Peter Karl Christoph Keith. Wilhelmina recorded that the two "soon became inseparable. Keith was intelligent, but without education. He served my brother from feelings of real devotion, and kept him informed of all the king's actions."
When he was 18, Frederick plotted to flee to England with Katte and other junior army officers. While the royal retinue was near Mannheim in the Electoral Palatinate, Robert Keith, Peter's brother, had an attack of conscience when the conspirators were preparing to escape and begged Frederick William for forgiveness on 5 August 1730;\
Frederick and Katte were subsequently arrested and imprisoned in Küstrin. Because they were army officers who had tried to flee Prussia for Great Britain, Frederick William leveled an accusation of treason against the pair.
The king threatened the crown prince with the death penalty, then considered forcing Frederick to renounce the succession in favour of his brother, Augustus William, although either option would have been difficult to justify to the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire.
The king forced Frederick to watch the decapitation of his confidant Katte at Küstrin on 6 November, leaving the crown prince to faint away and suffer hallucinations for the following two days.
Frederick was granted a royal pardon and released from his cell on 18 November, although he remained stripped of his military rank. Instead of returning to Berlin, however, he was forced to remain in Küstrin and began rigorous schooling in statecraft and administration for the War and Estates Departments on 20 November. Tensions eased slightly when Frederick William visited Küstrin a year later, and Frederick was allowed to visit Berlin on the occasion of his sister Wilhelmina's marriage to Margrave Frederick of Bayreuth on 20 November 1731. The crown prince returned to Berlin after finally being released from his tutelage at Küstrin on 26 February 1732

Frederick the Great…

this is a name full of significance in history of Germany. If we look back with perspective, he is the one behind the independence of Germany, even though Bismarck is the one who made war to gain it. This absolute king, also called Frederick II, is the symbol of Germany’s independence and is the subject of this biography.
He has his place in books about history of Germany, but also in the creation of his country. Our goal here is to paint a portrait of this man who had a huge impact on the existence of a nation. From his childhood and the period in which he lived to his realizations, without forgetting what made him a unique historical character. This is not about dates but about his life. It is now time to dive into history of a little country called Prussia during the 18th century, and believe me, it is worth it.
Historical context and childhood
Everything started at the beginning of the century. Europe was smaller before the Russian Empire really got involved in the continent. Kings and priests represented the elite of european society. They were the ones making political decisions and their influence affected the daily lives of populations. War was a natural way to conduct foreign policy for powers like the Ottoman Empire, Austria, France, England and a slowing-down Spain. Prussia – which will unite Germany during the 19th century – was just like Poland… a second-rate country.
Frederick the Great was born on January 24, 1712, in the middle of a cold winter. This day meant celebration for the Hohenzollern royal family. This latest son was much needed. His father, Frederick-Wilhelm, had already lost two children and had to keep this baby alive to ensure a smooth royal transition when he would die.
The baby’s health was somewhat fragile during the first couple of years, but he survived. Frederick-Wilhelm was happy about it. The baby was raised at Potsdam Palace.
His mother spoke French around him and she told him that French was the language of culture, while German was used by inferior people… and the kid included his father in this category.
The king made sure to train and educate his son properly. He raised him like any other kid, gave him military education, and the brat (nicknamed Fritz) just hated that.
The king wanted to make sure that his son was a real man. He did not want him to wear fancy clothes; he disliked the French style and language of his son. Each time the child did something wrong, his father would hit literally him.
One day, Fritz got tired of this treatment and wrote a letter to his grandfather (who lived in England) to tell him that he wanted to suicide.
He got caught and went to jail at Kuestrin for a few months. During this period, he studied agriculture, economy and administration. To recover freedom, he had to swear he would never seek revenge for this punishment, that he was always going to obey his father and that he would never get married without his father’s approval. Then, he went back to Potsdam. In 1732, his father told him that he found a woman for him to marry. Elizabeth Christine von Braunschweig-Bevern was her name. The wedding planned for June 12, 1733 did not excite Frederick at all. In any case, he went back to the soldier’s training routine once united to his wife.
In 1736, his life changed. The king gave him the Rheinsberg Palace and more money. This new situation made Frederick happier and richer. He was Voltaire’s pen pal (whom he admired and argued with), he played and composed songs, had his personal orchestra… pretty much all the things his father despised. He read, studied the Enlightenment and learned military strategy. He even wrote an anti-Machiavelli theory. He lived like a gentleman during four years before becoming King of Prussia. He was still happy despite a grudge with his father. In 1740, Frederick-Wilhelm died and the throne called his son as the successor. This event was to change Prussia forever, giving [virtual] birth to Germany as we know it, inspiring itself from this new king who would leave his mark.
Characteristics
Before taking a look at what he realized, we have to see what the new king was all about. He mastered French better than any Prussian. He was going to be a hero; would introduce reforms; be an Enlightened man; wanted the German population to have a new existence (does this sound familiar?) and his victories would have their place in history books. He was the nation’s symbol of patriotism.
He was a poet and writer. He would write many poems and 30 books while composing music. He was a gay man surrounded by a male society at “Château Sans-Souci”, which he built. According to him, people must be judged on their intelligence and skills, privileges having nothing to do with it. He was a fascinating character for his rivals.
Realizations
Frederick the Great’s personality appears through what he did in Prussia. And he did a whole lot of things…
Here is Prussia when he took over: a poorly populated country (2 million people) cities are weakling; the economy is not developed; Berlin is the only important city; agriculture is stuck under the administration of the Junkers; provinces are not united. When he died, 6 million people lived in Prussian territory, increased the land to 195 000 square kilometers instead of 120 000 and its geography was more coherent.
How did he do it all? War and administration.
When he took over, the last Habsburg (Charles VI) died to be followed by 40 years of war against Mary-Theresa of Hungary. Only the forces of nature would stop Frederick the Great!
Right after taking over, he attacked Silesia for conquest and the military conflicts in which he participated lasted until 1763. After that, Frederick the Great introduced something new to Prussia: the now-legendary will for Prussians to be powerful and build a military tradition. Something else was new because the changes had nothing to do with religion or ideology. The State, its power and its people were more important (German nationalism?) than traditional elites.
Frederick signed a pact with France to wage war against Austria in Silesia and he won. Therefore, Prussia’s strong unity slowly becomes reality with the conquered territories.
Before the Seven Years War, Frederick busted his alliances with Russia and France, mostly because he dumped them and made bad jokes about symbolic characters such as Madame de Pompadour and tsarina Elisabeth. In 1756, war was on the menu again. Prussia faced France, Russia, Austria, and the German Empire. Its ally ? An England that was determined to face France and ready to provide economic and military support to Prussia. War destroyed Prussia’s resources. During the conflict, Frederick the Great showed his genius and military strategy, his troops were disciplined, and his generals extremely competent. Berlin got occupied twice and almost everything collapsed, but…
Tsarina Elisabeth died in 1763. After taking over, Peter III changed Russia’s position take Prussia’s and England’s side, and then Catherine II assassinated him to grasp power. She simply stepped out of the conflict. This killed the morale of Frederick the Great’s opponents. The war was over. Total destruction was close, but Frederick’s bold moves paid off. In 1763, a new era began and Prussia became a major european power.
The funniest thing is that those years of conflict will lead Prussia to… a long lasting peace of 30 years. Frederick the Great will become a solid absolutist king just like Louis XIV. He will impose rational thought, secularization, legalist and humanist principles. The state is now everywhere in prussian life and it will respect Frederick’s dearest wishes. The army gets beefed up and efficiency is the only acceptable policy for the national administration. Prussia’s peace and security will barely be interrupted in this period until Bismarck’s easy victories from 1866 to 1870 and World War I in 1914. Frederick the Great’s successes gave birth to this nationalist tradition in Prussia and would also give birth to German pride.
In 1772, Frederick the Great divides Poland with Catherine II of Russia. It would be one of the classic divisions of Poland’s territory between its surrounding enemies.
Frederick the Great takes care of everything personally. He starts occupying the new territories. He is tolerant with religious diversity, abolishes torture, introduces new laws and fills the administration as well as the army ranks with nobility. It was the smartest thing for Frederick to do in order to ensure stability within his regime. The nobility was the only social class that (utimately) had the power to overthrow him. While liberalism rises everywhere, his reign is an icon of the Ancien Régime. He is the King, nobody else is.
Frederick the Great gives 50% of the state’s revenues to the army (a unique feat at the time) and builds the foundation of a new military tradition in Prussia, which will only end with Adolf Hitler’s collapse. Frederick the Great owns a lot of land, makes peasant life easier – happy peasants are better peasants – creates public organizations to sell food at a good price in difficult times; he guarantees credit and controls prices. Prussia now means stability and responsible government, which is a contrast when compared to the risks taken from 1740 to 1763. Frederick the Great made sure that Austria would not devour German territories. His successes – even after he died – cannot be destructed. When he was old, he also opposed to the possibility that intellectuals could have more power than the political men.
Frederick the Great governed Prussia during 46 years, gave importance to the army, reformed the administration and made his country a major power. He died in 1786, disease being the last opponent of his life.
Succession
Frederick II had no children. His immediate successor was his nephew, Friedrich Wilhelm II, and he ruled Prussia from 1786 to 1797.
Memory and conclusion
What did Frederick the Great leave behind him? He is the one who focused on militarism for the first time in German history. He started the military tradition that died in 1945. Without knowing, he inspired German leaders, including Adolf Hitler. He is the first symbol of their independence, just like George Washington was in the USA.
His memory was ruined by Bismarck and the Nazis. Bismarck made German unity official by using war as a nationalism-building too, as he said it himself. The Nazis revered him and used him as an inspiration. They wanted to follow his footsteps… in their own way. Hitler even had a portrait of him in his living room. This made people associated Frederick the Great to an ideology that lead to an ultranationalist hitlerian regime. From Frederick the Great, to Bismarck and Hitler, here is how it got simplified. Since then, the king’s image is not very positive, and this is too bad because of his legend, commitment and realizations. Such a character has been destroyed because of the mistakes made during the two world wars.
When you think about it, the Germans would respect Frederick the Great if the whole tradition lead them to victories and hegemony in Europe instead of the unusually rough treatment received at Versailles. Despite the treatment his character received through history, Frederick the Great had a big impact on his country’s future

· Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire

جنكيز خان بالمنغولية: Чингис Хаан، (تكتب الصينية: 成吉思汗 وهجاؤها بطريقة پن ينpinyin هو: cheng1 ji1 si1 kang1)، أو تيموجن (بالصينية: 鐵木真 ، وهجاؤها بطريقة پن ينpinyin هو: Temüjin، عاش ما بين عامي 1165 و1227 ميلادية[
وهو مؤسس وخانوخاقانوإمبراطورالإمبراطورية المغولية والتي اعتبرت أضخم إمبراطورية في التاريخ ‏(en)‏ ككتلة واحدة بعد وفاته. برز جنكيز خان بعد توحيده عدة قبائل رحللشمال شرق آسيا ‏(en)‏. فبعد إنشائه إمبراطورية المغول وتسميته "بجنكيز خان" بدأ بحملاته العسكرية ‏(en)‏ فهاجم خانات قراخيطان ‏(en)‏والقوقازوالدولة الخوارزميةزيا الغربية ‏(en)‏وإمبراطورية جين ‏(en)‏. وفي نهاية حياته كانت إمبراطوريته قد احتلت جزءا ضخما من أواسط آسياوالصين.
"جنكيزخان" كلمة تعني: قاهر العالم، أو ملك ملوك العالم، أو القوي.. حسب الترجمات المختلفة للغة المنغولية.. واسمه الأصلي "تيموجين".. وكان رجلاً سفاكًا للدماء.. وكان كذلك قائدًا عسكريًّا شديد البأس.. وكانت له القدرة على تجميع الناس حوله.. وبدأ في التوسع تدريجيًّا في المناطق المحيطة به، وسرعان ما اتسعت مملكته حتى بلغت حدودها من كوريا شرقًا إلى حدود الدولة الخوارزمية الإسلامية غربًا، ومن سهول سيبريا شمالاً إلى بحر الصين جنوبًا.. أي أنها كانت تضم من دول العالم حاليًا: (الصين ومنغوليا وفيتنام وكوريا وتايلاند وأجزاء من سيبيريا.. إلى جانب مملكة لاوس وميانمار ونيبال وبوتان)!!
وقبل أن يتوفى جنكيز خان اوصى أن يكون خليفته هو أوقطاي خان وقسم امبراطوريته إلى خانات بين أبنائه واحفاده. وقد توفي سنة 1227 بعد أن هزم التانجوت ‏(en)‏ وقد دفن في قبر مجهول ‏(en)‏ لايعرف بالضبط أين مكانه في منغوليا. وبدأ اسلافه بتوسيع إمبراطوريتهم خلال أرجاء أوراسيا من خلال احتلال و/أو إنشاء ممالك تابعة لهم داخل الصين الحالية وكوريا والقوقاز وممالك آسيا الوسطى، وأجزاء ضخمة من أوروبا الشرقيةوالشرق الأوسط.
إلى جانب إنجازاته العسكرية الضخمة، فجنكيز خان جعل الامبراطورية المغولية تتطور في وسائل أخرى. حيث انه أصدر مرسوم باعتماد الأبجدية الأويغورية كنظام الكتابة في الامبراطورية المغولية. لقد شجع أيضا التسامح الديني داخل إمبراطوريته، وأنشأ امبراطورية موحدة من قبائل شمال شرق آسيا الرحل. ويكن له المغول الحاليين شديد الاحترام ويعتبرونه الأب المؤسس لدولة منغوليا.

كانت أسرة "لياو" القياتيّة تحكم منغوليا، منشوريا، وأجزاء من شمال الصين، منذ القرن العاشر الميلادي، قبل بروز نجم "أسرة جين" التي أسسها الشعب الشوجيني. وفي عام 1125 أطاحت أسرة جين بأسرة لياو، وحاولت أن تسيطر على المقاطعات التي كانت الأخيرة تحكمها، إلا أن المغول، تحت قيادة "قابول خان"، الجد الأكبر لتيموجين (جنكيز خان)، استطاعوا أن يردوا الغزاة على أعقابهم ويمنعوهم من السيطرة على تلك الأراضي، وكان ذلك في أوائل القرن الثاني عشر. أدّت هذه الأحداث إلى بروز منافسة حادة بين المغولوالتتار في نهاية المطاف، وكان ملوك أسرة جين الذهبيون يدعمون التتار ويشجعونهم، كي يضمنوا بقاء قبائل المغول الرحّل ضعيفة. وفي ذلك العهد، كان هناك خمسة خانات (قبائل) قوية تقطن الهضبة المنغوليّة، ومنها المغول والتتار.
يُعتَقَد ان جنكيز خان ولد - حين ولادته سمى باسم تيموجين - بمعنى(القوي الصلب) ما بين عامي 1162و1167، وقد كان الابن البكر ليسوگيه Yesügei شيخ قبيلة كياد Kiyad وتكتب مفردا ب كيان Kiyan. وتسمى عائلة يسوگيه Yesügei بـ بورجيگن Borjigin ومفردها هو بورجيگيد Borjigid.
وعُرف والد تيموجين بالشدة والبأس حيث كانت تخشاه القبائل الأخرى، وقد سمى ابنه "تيموجين" بهذا الاسم تيمنًا بمولده في يوم انتصاره على إحدى القبائل التي كان يتنازع معها، وتمكنه من القضاء على زعيمهم الذي كان يحمل هذا الاسم.
ولم تطل الحياة بأبيه، فقد قتل على يد التتار المجاورين لهم في عام 1175 ميلادية، تاركًا حملا ثقيلا ومسئولية جسيمة لـ"تيموجين" الابن الأكبر الذي كان صغيراً لم يتجاوز الثالثة عشرة من عمره، وما كان ليقوى على حمل تبعات قبيلة كبيرة مثل "كياد"، فانفض عنه حلفاء أبيه، وانصرف عنه الأنصار والأتباع، واستغلت قبيلته صغر سنه فرفضت الدخول في طاعته، على الرغم من كونه الوريث الشرعي لرئاسة قبيلته، والتفَّت حول زعيم آخر، وفقدت أسرته الجاه والسلطان، وهامت في الأرض تعيش حياة قاسية، وتذوق مرارة الجوع والفقر والحرمان، بعد ذلك أصبح مطاردا هو وعائلته، فتنقلوا من مكان إلى آخر حتى لا يتم القبض عليهم.
وفي حوالي العشرين من عمره، زار تيموجن زوجته المستقبلية بورته Börte واستلم معطفا السمور الأسود من قبيلتها. وكان ذلك الأساس لثروته المتزايدة.

تمكن تيموجين، ابن أحد الزعماء المغول والذي عانى من طفولة صعبة، تمكن ببراعة سياسية وقبضة عسكرية حديدية من توحيد قبائلمنغولية - تركيةرحل كانت بالسابق شديدة التنافس فيما بينها، وبمساعدة حليفه، الزعيم من القبيلة الكيراتيّة، وانغ خان، وصديق طفولته المقرّب، "جاموقا" وأخوه في الدم من عشيرة جادران، تمكن من التغلب على قبائل الميرغيديون—الذين كانوا قد اختطفوا زوجته "بورته"—بالإضافة للنايميون والتتار.
منع تيموجين جنوده من النهب والسلب والاغتصاب دون إذنه، وقام بتوزيع الغنائم الحربية على المحاربين وعائلاتهم بدلا من الأرستقراطيين،[4] وبهذا حصل على لقب "خان"، بمعنى "السيد"—إلا أن أعمامه كانوا أيضا ورثة شرعيين للعرش، وقد أدى هذا الأمر إلى حصول عدد من النزاعات بين قوّاده ومساعديه، واستغل أعمامه هذا الأمر ليقنعوا "جاموقا" والكيراتيين بالتخلي عنه لصالح أرستقراطيين أخرىن، حيث ادعوا أن تيموجين ليس سوى مغتصب للعرش. كان لمركز تيموجين القوي وسمعته المهيبة بين المغول وغيرهم من الرحّل، أثر كبير على نخبة الكيراتيين، حيث خشوا جميعهم توسعه المرتقب وسلطته المتنامية، ولهذا انقلب عليه جميع أعمامه وأبناؤهم، بالإضافة لغيرهم من رؤساء العشائر، وبالتالي تقلّص عدد قواته بشكل كبير وكاد أن يُهزم في حرب تلت هذه الفترة، لولا أن انضم إليه بعض القبائل الأخرى الموالية له. قام المغول، في الفترة الممتدة بين عاميّ 1203و1205، بتدمير كل القبائل العاصية المتبقية، وضمها تحت حكم تيموجين، الذي توّج في العام التالي، أي 1206 "خان" الإمبراطورية المغولية، في "قوريلتاي" (مجلس المغول العام) وخلع على نفسه لقب "جنكيز خان"، الذي يعني على الأرجح "السيد الكبير" أو "الحاكم الأعظم"، بدلا من الألقاب القبلية القديمة مثل "غور خان" أو "تايانغ خان". يُعد المؤرخين هذا الحادث بداية عهد الإمبراطورية المغولية تحت حكم جنكيز خان.
قام جنكيز خان بتعيين أصدقائه المقربين قوادا في جيشه وحرسه الشخصي والمنزلي، كما قام بتقسيم قواته وفق الترتيب العشري، إلى وحدات تتألف من فرق، تحوي كل فرقة منها عدد محدد من الأشخاص، فكانت وحدة الأربان تتألف من فرق تحوي 10 أشخاص في كل منها، وحدة الياغون تتألف كل فرقة منها من 100 شخص، وحدة المنغان من 1000 شخص، ووحدة التومين من 10,000 شخص، كما تمّ تأسيس فرقة الحرس الإمبراطوري وتقسيمها إلى قسمين: الحرس النهاريون والحرس الليليون.[5] وكان جنكيز خان يُكافئ أولئك الذين يظهرون له الإخلاص والولاء ويضعهم في مراكز عليا، وكان معظم هؤلاء يأتون من عشائر صغيرة قليلة الأهمية والمقدار أمام العشائر الأخرى. يُعرف أن الوحدات العسكرية الخاصة بأفراد عائلة جنكيز خان كانت قليلة بالنسبة للوحدات التي سلّمها لرفاقه المقربين. أعلن الأخير في وقت لاحق قانونا جديدا للإمبراطورية هو "الياسا" أو "إيخ زاساغ"، ودوّن فيه كل ما يرتبط بالحياة اليومية والعلاقات السياسية للرحّل في ذلك الوقت، ومثال ذلك: منع صيد الحيوانات في موسم تزاوجها، بيع النساء، سرقة ممتلكات الغير، عدم الاغتسال في النهر وقت العاصفه، بالإضافة للقتال بين المغول،[6] وقام جنكيز خان بتعيين أخاه المتبنى "شيغي خوتهوغ" بمنصب قاضي القضاة،وأمره بالاحتفاظ بسجل عن الدعاوى المرفوعة والمشاكل التي تقع. وبالإضافة للأمور الأسرية، الغذائية، والعسكرية، أطلق جنكيز خان حرية المعتقد ودعم التجارة الداخلية والخارجية، وكان يعفي الفقراء ورجال الدين من الضرائب المفروضة عليهم وعلى ممتلكاتهم.[7] ولهذه الأسباب، انضم الكثير من المسلمين، البوذيين، والمسيحيين، من منشوريا، شمال الصين، الهند، وبلاد فارس، طوعا إلى إمبراطورية جنكيز خان، قبل أن يشرع بفتوحاته الخارجية بوقت طويل. اعتنق هذا الخان الأبجدية الأويغورية، التي شكلت فيما بعد أساس الأبجدية المنغولية، وأمر المعلّم الأويغوري "تاتاتوانغا"، الذي كان يعمل في خدمة خان النايميين، بتعليم أبنائه.[8]

سرعان ما وقع جنكيز خان، بعد بروز إمبراطوريته كقوى عظمى، في نزاع مع أسرة جين الشوجينية، وأسرة زيا الغربية التغوتيّة، حكّام شمال الصين، فقام بغزو ممالك الصين الشمالية هذه بسرعة وضمها إليه، ثم حصلت بعض الاستفزازات فيما بينه وبين الدولة الخوارزمية القوية، على الحدود الغربية، لامبراطوريته، مما حدا بالخان للاتجاه غربا صوب آسيا الوسطى حيث احتل خوارزم ودمرها واحتل بلاد ماوراء النهر وفارس، بعد ذلك هاجم كييفالروسية والقوقاز وضمهم إلى ملكه. قبل مماته وزع تركته الإمبراطورية بين أبنائه وحسب الأعراف يبقى الحكم للأسرة المالكة والتي هي من سلالته فقط.
وواصل تيموجين خطته في التوسع على حساب جيرانه، فبسط سيطرته على منطقة شاسعة من إقليم منغوليا، تمتد حتى صحراء جوبي، حيث مضارب عدد كبير من قبائل التتار، ثم دخل في صراع مع حليفه رئيس قبيلة الكراييت، وكانت العلاقات قد ساءت بينهما بسبب الدسائس والوشايات، وتوجس "أونك خان" زعيم الكراييت من تنامي قوة تيموجين وازدياد نفوذه؛ فانقلب حلفاء الأمس إلى أعداء وخصوم، واحتكما إلى السيف، وكان الظفر في صالح تيموجين سنة (600هـ= 1203م)، فاستولى على عاصمته "قره قورم" وجعلها قاعدة لملكه، وأصبح تيموجين بعد انتصاره أقوى شخصية مغولية، فنودي به خاقانا، وعُرف باسم "جنكيز خان"؛ أي إمبراطور العالم.
وبعد ذلك قضى ثلاث سنوات عُني فيها بتوطيد سلطانه، والسيطرة على المناطق التي يسكنها المغول، حتى تمكن من توحيد منغوليا بأكملها تحت سلطانه، ودخل في طاعته الأويغوريون.

"إنه ليس كافيا أن أكون ناجحا-- كل الآخرين يجب أن تفشل".
"بمعونة السماء لقد فتحت لكم امبراطورية عظيمة. لكن حياتي كانت قصيرة للغاية لتحقيق غزو العالم. هذه المهمة تركت لكم "
"أنا عقاب الرب... إذا لم ترتكبو أكبر الخطاية، لامالله يبعث عقوبة مثلي عليكم".
"أنا على استعداد بالتضحية بنصف شعب المغول لكي يستقيم النصف الثاني".
سعادتنا الكبرى هو ان تشتت عدوك، من اجل دفعه قبلك، لرؤية المدن تحولت إلى رماد، لمعرفة أولئك الذين يحبونه غارقين في البكاء، وتضعه في حضن زوجاته وبناته".
اذا جسدي مات، اسمحوا لجسدي ان يموت، ولكن لا تدع بلدي تموت.

1187؟ حمل لقب جنكيز خان (الملك العالمي)
1198 القوات المشتركة مع Toghril، وهو حليف لوالده الراحل، واسرة جين (شين) في شمال الصين لمعركة التتار.
1200-1202 يهزم اتحاد كونفدرالي من القوات التي يقودها Jamuka، صديق الطفولة، وكثير من أتباع Jamuka بعدها تحالفوا مع جنكيز خان.
1202 هزم قوات التتار وأمر بالإعدامات الجماعية التي دمرت التتار
1206 أعلن الحاكم لجميع المغول من قبل مَجْلِس أمراء المغول بعد وفاة Jamuka
1211 حصار لاسرة جين في شمال الصين، والسيطرة عليها في غضون سنة
1214 التوصل إلى اتفاق سلام مع أسرة جين، ولكن في العام التالي سلب رؤوس أموالها واضطر الامبراطور إلى الفرار
1216-1221توسع إمبراطورية المغول غربا إلى آسيا الوسطى، وتمتد هذه المنطقة من السيطرة على ما يسمى الآن إيران، وأفغانستان، وجنوب روسيا
1221 هزم جلال الدين على ضفاف نهر السند، وتوسيع الامبراطورية المنغولية إلى أقصى حد الذي تم التوصل إليه خلال حياته
1226 هزم قوات جين العائدة على هوانغ (النهر الأصفر)، لكنه توفي في العام التالي، بينما واصل التخطيط للهجوم

سيظل جنكيز خان عبقريّة عسكرية ككبار الفاتحين مثل خالد بن الوليد والإسكندر الأكبر وتحتمس الثالث إلا أنه يختلف عنهم بسعيه في الأرض فسادًا ودمارًا في كل فتوحاته؛ حيث أسس إمبراطورية امتدت في عهد سلالته من أوكرانيا إلى كوريا. كما أسّس أحفاده سلالات ملكية في الصين وبلاد فارس وروسيا، ومن سلالات أحفاده ملوك حكموا في آسيا الوسطى لقرون عدة.
يحدّثنا المؤرخ الألماني (بيرتولد شبولر) عن شخصية جنكيز خان فيقول في صفحة (27):
"إن صفات جنكيز خان الفائقة وشخصيته الفذّة لا تظهر في انتصاراته العسكرية فحسب؛ بل في ميادين أخرى ليست أقل أهمية إذ لا يسعنا إلا أن ننظر بإكبار وإعجاب إلى منجزاته كمشرّع قانوني، ومنظّم للأمّة المغولية."

Genghis Khan (/ˈɡɛŋɡɪsˈkɑːn/ or /ˈdʒɛŋɡɪsˈkɑːn/, Mongol: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ] ( listen); 1162? – August 1227), born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu (太祖), was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.
Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons.[7] He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories.[8] Mongol campaigns may have resulted in the deaths of 40 million people.[9]
Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and created a unified empire from the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia.[10]

Because of the lack of contemporary written records, there is very little factual information about the early life of Temujin. The few sources that provide insight into this period often conflict.
Temujin was born in 1162 or 1155 in Delüün Boldog near Burkhan Khaldun mountain and the Onon and Kherlen Rivers in modern-day Mongolia, not far from the current capital, Ulaanbaatar. The Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born with a blood clot grasped in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader.
He was the third-oldest son of his father Yesükhei, a Khamag Mongol's major chief of the Kiyad and an ally of Toghrul Khan of the Kerait tribe, and the oldest son of his mother Hoelun.
According to the Secret History, Temujin was named after a Tatar chieftain, Temujin-üge, whom his father had just captured. The name also suggests that they may have been descended from a family of blacksmiths (see section Name and title below).
Yesukhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the Olkhunut, the sub-lineage of the Onggirat tribe. Like other tribes, they were nomads. Because his father was a chieftain, as were his predecessors, Temüjin was of a noble background. This higher social standing made it easier to solicit help from and eventually consolidate the other Mongol tribes.]
No accurate portraits of Genghis exist today, and any surviving depictions are considered to be artistic interpretations. Persian historian Rashid-al-Din recorded in his "Chronicles" that the legendary "glittering" ancestor of Genghis was tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and green-eyed. Rashid al-Din also described the first meeting of Genghis and Kublai Khan, when Genghis was surprised to find that Kublai had not inherited his red hair. Also according to al-Din Genghis' Borjigid clan, had a legend involving their origins: it began as the result of an affair between Alan-ko and a stranger to her land, a glittering man who happened to have red hair and bluish-green eyes. Modern historian Paul Ratchnevsky has suggested in his Genghis biography that the "glittering man" may have been from the Kyrgyz people, who historically displayed these same characteristics.

Temujin had 3 brothers named Hasar, Hachiun, and Temüge, and one sister named Temülen, as well as two half-brothers named Behter and Belgutei.
Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temujin's early life was difficult. His father arranged a marriage for him, and at nine years of age, he was delivered by his father to the family of his future wife Börte, who was a member of the tribe Onggirat. Temujin was to live there in service to Dei Sechen, the head of the new household, until he reached the marriageable age of 12.
While heading home, his father ran into the neighboring Tatars, who had long been enemies of the Mongols, and he was subsequently poisoned by the food they offered.
Upon learning this, Temujin returned home to claim his father's position as chieftain of the tribe; however, his father's tribe refused to be led by a boy so young. They abandoned Hoelun and her children, leaving them without protection.
For the next several years, Hoelun and her children lived in poverty, surviving primarily on wild fruits and ox carcasses, marmots, and other small game hunted by Temujin and his brothers.
It was during one hunting excursion that 10-year-old Temujin killed his half-brother, Behter, during a fight which resulted from a dispute over hunting spoils.
This incident cemented his position. In another incident in 1182 he was captured in a raid and held prisoner by his father's former allies, the Tayichi'ud.
The Tayichi'ud enslaved Temujin (reportedly with a cangue), but with the help of a sympathetic watcher, the father of Chilaun (who later became a general of Genghis Khan), he was able to escape from the ger in the middle of the night by hiding in a river crevice.It was around this time that Jelme and Bo'orchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined forces with him. Temüjin's reputation also became widespread after his escape from the Tayichi'ud.
At this time, none of the tribal confederations of Mongolia were united politically, and arranged marriages were often used to solidify temporary alliances. Temujin grew up observing the tough political climate of Mongolia, which included tribal warfare, thievery, raids, corruption and continuing acts of revenge carried out between the various confederations, all compounded by interference from foreign forces such as the Chinese dynasties to the south. Temujin's mother Olen taught him many lessons about the unstable political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances.
As previously arranged by his father, Temujin married Börte of the Onggirat tribe when he was around 16 in order to cement alliances between their respective tribes. Börte had four sons, Jochi (1185–1226), Chagatai (1187—1241), Ögedei (1189—1241), and Tolui (1190–1232). Soon after Börte's marriage to Temujin, she was kidnapped by the Merkits, and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, Jamuha, and his protector, Toghrul Khan of the Kerait tribe. She gave birth to a son, Jochi, nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi, Börte would be his only empress, though Temujin did follow tradition by taking several morganatic wives.[17] Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from the succession. While the names of sons were documented, daughters were not. The names of at least six daughters are known, and while they played significant roles behind the scenes during his lifetime, no documents have survived that definitively provide the number or names of daughters born to the wives and consorts of Genghis Khan.
Temujin valued loyalty above all else and also valued brotherhood. Jamuha was one of Temujin's best friends growing up. But their friendship was tested later in life, when Temujin was fighting to become a khan. Jamuha said this to Temujin before he was killed, "What use is there in my becoming a companion to you? On the contrary, sworn brother, in the black night I would haunt your dreams, in the bright day I would trouble your heart. I would be the louse in your collar, I would become the splinter in your door-panel...as there was room for only one sun in the sky, there was room only for one Mongol lord."

Gero was the son of Count Thietmar, tutor of Henry I. He was appointed by King Otto I to succeed his brother, Siegfried, as count and margrave in the district fronting the Wends on the lower Saale in 937. His appointment frustrated Thankmar, the king's half-brother and Siegfried's cousin, and together with Eberhard of Franconia and Wichmann the Elder, he revolted against the king (938). Thankmar was dead within a year and his accomplices came to terms with Otto. Gero was kept in his march.
During the insurrection of his opponents, Gero had been prosecuting a losing war against the Slavs in 937–938. The losses his troops sustained could not be made up for by the produce of the land nor by tribute, since the Slavs refused to pay. As an important marcher lord, Gero's command included milites ad manum Geronis presidis conscripti, that is, a "military following," "warband of vassals or companions," or "specially chosen group of fighters" differentiated from the rest of the army (exercitus). These men formed the elite of Gero's troops.

In 939, an Obodrite attack left a German army routed and its margravial leader dead. Gero in revenge invited thirty Slav chieftains to a banquet whereat he killed all but one, who managed to escape by accident. In response, the Stodorani revolted against German overlordship and chased the Germans across the Elbe, but Gero was able to reverse this before Otto's arrival in Magdeburg later in the year. He subsequently bribed Tugumir, a baptised Slav prince, to betray his countryman and make his people subject to Germany. Soon after, the Obodrites and the Wilzes made submission.
In 954, while Gero was away, the Ukrani (or Ucri) revolted, but Gero returned with Conrad the Red and pacified them.
In 955, some Saxon counts rebelled and were banished by Duke Herman. They found refuge in Swetlastrana, a Slav town, location unknown, where the Obodrite chiefs Nakon and Stoinegin (or Stojgnev) resided. There Herman besieged them until an agreement was reached, but an ensuing skirmish spoiled the peace. The Obodrites, Wilzes, Chrepienyani, Redarii, and Dolenzi then banded together to oppose the coming army of Gero, the king, and Liudolf, Duke of Swabia. After negotiations failed because the Germans harsh terms, the Slavs were defeated in battle on the Drosa.[7]
Gero participated in general Saxon campaigns against the Slavs in 957, 959, and 960, as well as campaigning against the Wends and forcing Mieszko I of the Polans to pay tribute, grant land lien, and recognise German sovereignty during Otto's absence in Italy (962–963).[8] Lusatia, according to Widukind, was subjected "to the last degree of servitude."[9] Gero was responsible for subjecting the Liutizi and Milzini (or Milciani) and extending German suzerainty over the whole territory between the Elbe and the Bober.[2] In these lands, the native Slavic populace was reduced to serfdom and "tribute-paying peoples" were converted into "census-paying peasants."

Gero had a close relationship to Otto I. Otto was godfather to Gero's eldest son, Siegfried, and he granted Siegfried the villae of Egeln and Westeregeln in the Schwabengau in 941. As an act of devotion, Gero made a pilgrimage to Rome in 959 after Siegfried's death. In Siegfried's name, in 960, he also founded a Romanesque monastery in a forest named after him, Geronisrode (Gernrode), and left a large part of his great wealth to it on his death.[13] This monastery, dedicated to St Cyriacus,[14] was later converted into a convent.[15]
Gero's second son, Gero II, had already died at that point. The name of Gero's wife has to be hypothesised from libri memoriales: it was either Judith (Iudita) or Thietsuuind (Thietswind).

At his death, Gero's march extended as far as the Neisse river. He was not popular with the Saxon nobility of his day, because he had a strong sense of moral rectitude and was of low birth.
Nonetheless, he became celebrated in the Nibelungenlied as the marcgrâve Gêre, though have disputed whether he was ever officially accorded that title.[ Gero's tomb can still be see in Gernrode today. A decorative painting was added to it c. 1350. It depicts Gero standing over a vanquished Wend.[18]
After his death, the huge territory he had conquered was divided by the Emperor Otto into several different marches: the Northern March (under Dietrich of Haldensleben), the Eastern March (under Odo I), the March of Meissen (under Wigbert), the March of Merseburg (under Günther) and the March of Zeitz (under Wigger I). Later the Northern March was subdivided into the marches of Landsberg, Lusatia, and Brandenburg.
The division of Gero's "super-march" probably had something to do with its immense size and the political consideration of trying to please many without making enemies.[19] The subdivisions into which it was divided, however, were natural. As early as 963, Lusatia — and even upper and lower Lusatia — and the Ostmark were distinguishable as governable provinces within Gero's march.[2]

33- غوستاف الثاني أدولف

(9 ديسمبر1594 - 6 نوفمبر1632)، ويعرف باسمه اللاتينيغوستافوس (الثاني) أدولفوس وأحيانا حسب غوستاف أدولف العظيم (بالسويدية : GustavAdolf den store)، يعتبر أعظم ملوك السويد وأحد أهم الشخصيات البروتستانتية.يعتبر في جميع المراجع العسكرية أبو الحرب الحديثة

ولد غوستافوس أدولفوس في ستوكهولم إبناً لكارل التاسع ملك السويد من سلالة فاسا من زوجته الثانية كريستينا غوتورف-هولشتاين.

ورث العرش بعد وفاة والده في سن السابعة عشرة سنة 1611.

هدفت سياسته إلى إعادة تنظيم الحدود والشؤون الداخلية، وتحقيقا لهذه الغاية أبرم هدنة مع الدانمرك (صلح كنيرد، 1613). قام بتقوية الجيش، قام بسلسلة حملات عسكرية رائعة وموفقة نحو الشرق، فقاتل الروس ناجحاً بتوسيع حدوده حتى بحيرة لادوغا. وقد وُقـّع الصلح في ستولبوفا سنة 1617.

Gustav II Adolf (born 9 December 1594, died 6 November 1632, O.S.) has been widely known in English by his Latinized name Gustavus Adolphus Magnus and variously in historical writings also as Gustavus, or Gustavus the Great, or Gustav Adolph the Great (Swedish: Gustav Adolf den store, a formal distinction passed by the Swedish Parliament in 1634). He was King of Sweden (1611–1632) and founder of the Swedish Empire (or Stormaktstiden – "the era of great power") at the beginning of the Golden Age of Sweden. He led his nation to military supremacy during the Thirty Years War, helping to determine the political as well as the religious balance of power in Europe. He is thereby regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time. His most notable military victory was the battle of Breitenfeld. With a superb military machine with good weapons, excellent training, and effective field artillery, backed by an efficient government which could provide necessary funds, Gustavus Adolphus was poised to make himself a major European leader, but he was killed in battle of Lützen in 1632. He was assisted by Axel Oxenstierna (1583–1654), leader of the nobles who also acted as regent after his death.
In an era characterized by almost endless warfare, he led his armies as king from 1611 (at age 17) until his death in battle in 1632 while leading a charge — as Sweden rose from the status of a mere regional power and run-of-the-mill kingdom to one of the great powers of Europe and a model of early modern era government. Within only a few years of his accession Sweden had become the largest nation in Europe after Russia and Spain. Some have called him the "father of modern warfare",[1] or the first great modern general. Under his tutelage, Sweden and the Protestant cause developed a number of excellent commanders, such as Lennart Torstensson, who would go on to defeat Sweden's enemies and expand the boundaries and the power of the empire long after Gustav Adolph's death in battle.
He was known by the epithets "The Golden King" and "The Lion of the North" by neighboring sovereigns. Gustavus Adolphus is commemorated today with city squares in Stockholm, Gothenburg and Helsingborg. Gustavus Adolphus College, a Lutheran college in St. Peter, Minnesota is also named for the Swedish king.

Gustavus Adolphus was born in Stockholm as the oldest son of Duke Charles of the Vasa dynasty and his second wife, Christina of Holstein-Gottorp. At the time, the King of Sweden was Gustavus Adolphus' cousin Sigismund. The staunch Protestant Duke Charles forced the Catholic King to let go of the throne of Sweden in 1599, a part of the preliminary religious strife before the Thirty Years' War, and reigned as regent before taking the throne as Charles IX of Sweden in 1604. Crown Prince Gustav Adolph had Gagnef-Floda in Dalecarlia as a duchy from 1610. Upon his father's death in October 1611, a sixteen-year-old Gustavus inherited the throne (declared of age and able to reign himself at seventeen as of December 16[2]), as well as an ongoing succession of occasionally belligerent dynastic disputes with his Polish cousin. Sigismund III wanted to regain the throne of Sweden and tried to force Gustavus Adolphus to renounce the title.
In a round of this dynastic dispute, Gustavus invaded Livonia when he was 31, beginning the Polish-Swedish War (1625–1629). He intervened on behalf of the Lutherans in Germany, who opened the gates to their cities to him. His reign became famous from his actions a few years later when on June 1630 he landed in Germany, continuing Sweden's involvement in the ongoing Thirty Years' War. Gustavus intervened on the anti-Imperial side, which at the time was losing to the Holy Roman Empire and its Catholic allies; the Swedish forces would quickly reverse that situation.
Gustavus was married to Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, the daughter of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, and chose the Prussian city of Elbing as the base for his operations in Germany. He died in the Battle of Lützen in 1632. His early death was a great loss to the Lutheran side. This resulted in large parts of Germany and other countries, which had been conquered for Lutheranism, to be reconquered for Catholicism (via Counter-Reformation). His involvement in the Thirty Years' War gave rise to the saying that he was the incarnation of "the Lion of the North", or as it is called in German "Der Löwe von Mitternacht" (Literally: "The Lion of Midnight").

Gustavus Adolphus was an extremely able military commander.[3][4] His innovative tactical integration of infantry, cavalry, logistics and particularly his use of artillery, earned him the title of the "Father of Modern Warfare". Future commanders who studied and admired Gustav II Adolf include Napoleon I of France and Carl von Clausewitz. His advancements in military science made Sweden the dominant Baltic power for the next one hundred years (see Swedish Empire). He is also the only Swedish monarch to be styled "the Great". This decision was made by the Swedish Estates of the Realm, when they convened in 1633. Thus, by their decision he is officially, to this day, to be called Gustaf Adolf the Great (Gustavus Adolphus Magnus).
Gustavus Adolphus was the main figure responsible for the success of Swedish arms during the Thirty Years' War and led his nation to great prestige. As a general, Gustavus Adolphus is famous for employing mobile artillery on the battlefield, as well as very aggressive tactics, where attack was stressed over defense, and mobility and cavalry initiative were emphasized.
Among other innovations, he installed an early form of combined arms in his formations, where the cavalry could attack from the safety of an infantry line reinforced by cannon, and retire again within to regroup after their foray. He adopted much shallower infantry formations than were common in the pike and shot armies of the era, with formations typically fighting in 5 or 6 ranks, occasionally supported at some distance by another such formation—the gaps being the provinces of the artillery and cavalry as noted above. His artillery were themselves different—he would not let himself be hindered by cumbersome heavy cannon, but instead over a course of experimentation settled on smaller, more maneuverable weapons, in effect fielding the first light field artillery in history in significant numbers.
These were grouped in batteries supporting his more linearly deployed formations, replacing the cumbersome and unmaneuverable traditional deep squares (such as the Spanish Tercios that were up to 50 ranks deep) used in other pike and shot armies of the day. In consequence, his forces could redeploy and reconfigure very rapidly, confounding his enemies.
His armies were very well trained for the day, so that his musketeers were widely known for their firing accuracy and reload speed: three times faster than any contemporary rivals. Carl von Clausewitz and Napoleon Bonaparte considered him one of the greatest generals of all time; a sentiment agreed with by George S. Patton and others. He was also renowned for the consistency of purpose and the amity of his troops—no one part of his armies was considered better or received preferred treatment, as was common in other armies where the cavalry were the elite, followed by the artillery, and both disdained the lowly infantry. In Gustavus' army the units were extensively cross trained. Both cavalry and infantry could service the artillery, as his heavy cavalry did when turning captured artillery on the opposing Catholic Tercios at First Breitenfeld. Pikemen could shoot—if not as accurately as those designated musketeers—so a valuable firearm could be kept in the firing line. His infantrymen and gunners were taught to ride, if needed. Napoleon thought highly of the achievement, and copied the tactics.

Gustavus Adolphus was a very forward thinking military engineer. He reengineered the way in which his army worked, with simple innovations that proved devastating to his adversaries.
One example of this was the Swedish cavalry system. Cavalry had been pushed to the fringes of military worth and had been largely neutralized by the Spanish tercios. They were being ineffectively used to charge the enemy front or flank, fire broadsides with pistols and muskets and then retreat to reload and reform.[5] However, Gustavus Adolphus used light cannons (reengineered to have 3 standard calibers, one of which was eventually called "The Regimental Cannon,") along with muskets to eliminate enemy pikemen, then the cavalry would swoop in and cut through enemy lines with sabers.[5]

Gustavus Adolphus inherited three wars from his father when he ascended the throne: Against Denmark, which had attacked Sweden earlier in 1611, against Russia, due to Sweden having tried to take advantage of the Russian Time of Troubles, and against Poland, due to King Charles' having deposed King Sigismund III, his nephew, as King of Sweden.
The war against Denmark (Kalmar War) was concluded in 1613 with a peace that did not cost Sweden any territory, but it was forced to pay a heavy indemnity to Denmark (Treaty of Knäred). During this war, Gustavus Adolphus let his soldiers plunder towns and villages and as he met little resistance from Danish forces in Scania, they pillage and devastate 24 Scanian parishes. His memory in Scania has been negative because of that.[citation needed]
The war against Russia (Ingrian War) ended in 1617 with the Treaty of Stolbovo, which excluded Russia from the Baltic Sea. The final inherited war, the war against Poland, ended in 1629 with the Truce of Altmark which transferred the large province Livonia to Sweden and freed the Swedish forces for the subsequent intervention in the Thirty Years' War in Germany, where Swedish forces had already established a bridgehead n 1628.
When Gustavus Adolphus began his push into northern Germany in June–July 1630, he had just 4,000 troops. But he was soon able to consolidate the Protestant position in the north, using reinforcements from Sweden and money supplied by France (Treaty of Bärwalde). After Swedish plundering in Brandenburg (1631) endangered the system of retrieving war contributions from occupied territories, "marauding and plundering" by Swedish soldiers was prohibited.[6] Meanwhile, a Catholic army under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly was laying waste to Saxony. Gustavus Adolphus met Tilly's army and crushed it at the First Battle of Breitenfeld in September 1631. He then marched clear across Germany, establishing his winter quarters near the Rhine, making plans for the invasion of the rest of the Holy Roman Empire.
In March 1632, Gustavus Adolphus invaded Bavaria, a staunch ally of the Emperor. He forced the withdrawal of his Catholic opponents at the Battle of Rain. This would mark the high point of the campaign. In the summer of that year, he sought a political solution that would preserve the existing structure of states in Germany, while guaranteeing the security of its Protestants. But achieving these objectives depended on his continued success on the battlefield.
Gustavus is reported to have entered battle without wearing any armor, proclaiming, "The Lord God, is my armor!" It is more likely that he simply wore a leather cuirass rather than going into battle wearing no battle protection whatsoever. In 1627, near Dirschau in Prussia, a Polish soldier shot him in the muscles above his shoulders. He survived, but the doctors could not remove the bullet, so from that point on, he could not wear iron armor. Also, two fingers of his right hand were paralyzed.[7]
Gustavus Adolphus was killed at the Battle of Lützen, when, at a crucial point in the battle, he became separated from his troops while leading a cavalry charge into a dense smog of mist and gunpowder smoke. After his death, his wife initially kept his body, and later his heart, in the castle of Nyköping for over a year. His remains (including his heart) now rest in Riddarholmskyrkan in Stockholm.
In February 1633, following the death of the king, the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates decided that his name would be styled Gustav Adolf the Great (or Gustaf Adolf den Store in Swedish). No such honor has been bestowed on any other Swedish monarch before or since.
The crown of Sweden was inherited in the Vasa family, and from Charles IX's time excluded those Vasa princes who had been traitors or descended from deposed monarchs. Gustavus Adolphus' younger brother had died ten years before, and therefore there were only the King's daughter left as a female heir. Maria Eleonora and the king's ministers took over the government on behalf of Gustavus Adolphus' underage daughter Christina upon her father's death. He left one other known child, his illegitimate son Gustav, Count of Vasaborg.

The German Socialist Franz Mehring (1846–1919) wrote a biography of Gustavus Adolphus with a Marxist perspective on the actions of the Swedish king during the Thirty Years' War. In it, he makes a case that the war was fought over economics and trade rather than religion.
In his book "Ofredsår" ("Years of Warfare"), the Swedish historian and author Peter Englund argues that there was probably no single all-important reason for the king's decision to go to war. Instead, it was likely a combination of religious, security, as well as economic considerations.
This view is supported by German historian Johannes Burkhardt who writes that Gustavus entered the 30 Years War exactly 100 years after the publication of the Confessio Augustana, the core confession of faith of the Lutheran Church, and let himself be praised as its saviour. Yet Gustavus' own "manifesto of war" does not mention any religious motivations at all but speaks of political and economical reasons. Sweden would have to maintain its integrity in the face of several provocations and aggressions by the Habsburgian Empire. The manifesto was written by scholar Johann Adler Salvius in a style common of the time that promotes a "just war". Burkhardt argues that traditional Swedish historiography constructed a defensive interest in security out of that by taking the manifesto's text for granted. But to defend Stockholm, the occupation of the German Baltic territories would have been an extreme advance and the imperial Baltic Sea fleet mentioned as a threat in the manifesto had never reached more than a quarter of the size of the Swedish fleet. Moreover it was never maintained to challenge Sweden but to face the separatist Netherlands. So if ruling the Baltic Sea was a goal of Swedish strategy, the conquests in Germany were not a defensive war but an act of expansion. From Swedish Finland, Gustavus advanced along the Baltic Sea coast and eventually to Augsburg and Munich and he even urged the Swiss Confederacy to join him. This was no longer about Baltic interests but the imperial capital of Vienna and the alpine passes were now in close reach of the Swedish army. Another point mentioned by Burkhardt is the Gothic legacy of the Swedes, which had become a political program. The Swedish king was also "Rex Gotorum", (Latin: King of the Goths) and the list of kings was traced back to the Gothic rulers to construct continuity. Prior to his embarkment to northern Germany, Gustavus urged the Swedish nobility to follow the example of conquests set by their Gothic ancestors. Had he lived longer, it would have been likely that Gustavus had reached out for the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire.[8]

Gustav II Adolf's success in making Sweden one of the great powers of Europe, and perhaps the most important power in the Thirty Years' War after France and Spain, was due not only to his military brilliance, but also to important institutional reforms in Sweden's government. The chief among these reforms was the institution of the first Parish registrations, so that the central government could more efficiently tax and conscript its populace.
Gustav II Adolf's politics in the conquered territory of Estonia also show progressive tendencies. In 1631 he forced the nobility to grant the peasants greater autonomy.[9] He also encouraged education, opening a school in Tallinn in 1631, today known as Gustav Adolf High School (in Estonian: Gustav Adolfi Gümnaasium)[10] On 30 June 1632, Gustav II Adolf signed the Foundation Decree of Academia Dorpatensis in Estonia, today known as the University of Tartu.[11] With policies that supported the common people, the period of Swedish rule over Estonia initiated by Gustav II Adolf and continued by his successors, is popularly known by Estonians as the "good old Swedish times" (Estonian: vana hea Rootsi aeg).[12]
On August 27, 1617, he spoke before his coronation, and his words included these:
I had carefully learned to understand, about that experience which I could have upon things of rule, how fortune is failing or great, subject to such rule in common, so that otherwise I would have had scant reason to desire such a rule, had I not found myself obliged to it through God’s bidding and nature. – Now it was of my acquaintance, that inasmuch as God had let me be born a prince, such as I then am born, then my good and my destruction were knotted into one with the common good; for every reason then, it was now my promise that I should take great pains about their well-being and good governance and management, and thereabout bear close concern.[13]

Under Gwanggaeto, Goguryeo once again became a major power of East Asia, having enjoyed such a status in the 2nd century CE. Upon Emperor Gwanggaeto's death at thirty-nine years of age in 413, Goguryeo controlled all territory between the Amur and Han Rivers (two thirds of modern Korea, Manchuria, and parts of the Russian Maritime province and Inner Mongolia).
In addition, in 399, Silla submitted to Goguryeo for protection from raids from Baekje. Gwanggaeto captured the Baekje capital in present-day Seoul and made Baekje its vassal. Many consider this loose unification under Goguryeo to have been the only true unification of the Three Kingdoms.
Gwanggaeto's accomplishments are recorded on the Gwanggaeto Stele, erected in 414 at the site of his tomb in Ji'an along the present-day Chinese-North Korean border. It is the largest engraved stele in the world.

At the time of Gwanggaeto's birth, Goguryeo was not as powerful as it once had been. Just prior to his birth, King Geunchogo of Baekje had soundly defeated Goguryeo, slaying Emperor Gogukwon of Goguryeo. Emperor Sosurim of Goguryeo, who succeeded Gogukwon upon the latter's death in 371, kept his foreign policy as isolationist as possible so as to rebuild a state gravely weakened by the Baekje invasion of 371. Gogukyang, who succeeded Sosurim, maintained a similar policy, opting to focus on the rehabilitation and remobilization of Goguryeo forces.
After defeating Goguryeo in 371, Baekje had become a one of the most dominant power in East Asia, whose influence was not limited to the Korean peninsula. That state's Emperor Geunchogo seized several coastal cities of China, notably in Liaoxi and Shandong, to retain its superiority over Goguryeo and a variety of southern Chinese dynasties, which had arisen within the context of extended civil wars caused by the fall of the Han Dynasty in 220 CE and the concomitant invasions of foreign tribes, including but not limited to the Xiongnu and Xianbei (Wu Hu). Baekje under Geunchogo's leadership also seems to have had a close relationship with parts of Wa (Japan) and established good relations with that archipelago's natives. Thus Goguryeo, surrounded by a powerful Baekje's forces to its south and west, was inclined to avoid conflict with its peninsular neighbor while cultivating constructive relations with the Xienpei and Rouran, in order to defend itself from future invasions, and even the possible destruction of its state.

Gwanggaeto succeeded his father, Emperor Gogukyang, upon his death in 391. Immediately upon being crowned Emperor of Goguryeo, Gwanggaeto granted himself the title "Supreme King Yeongnak", affirming himself as equal to the rulers of China and the Emperor of Baekje. He then began to rebuild and retrain Goguryeo's cavalry units and naval fleet, and they were put into action the following year, 392, against Baekje.
In 392, with Gwanggaeto in personal command, Goguryeo attacked Baekje with 50,000 cavalry, taking 10 walled cities along the two countries' mutual border. This offensive infuriated King Asin of Baekje and he subsequently planned a counter-offensive against Gwanggaeto, a plan he was forced to abandon when his invasion force was defeated by Goguryeo in 393. King Asin again attacked Goguryeo in 394, and was again defeated. After several heavy defeats, Baekje began to politically crumble and the leadership of Asin came under doubt. Baekje was defeated by Goguryeo again in 395, and was eventually pushed back to a front along the Han River, where Wiryeseong was, then its capital city located in the southern part of modern day Seoul.
In the following year, Gwanggaeto led his huge fleet in an assault on Wiryeseong, approaching by sea and river. Asin was expecting a ground invasion and was caught with his defenses down. Gwanggaeto's forces burnt about 58 walled fortresses under Baekje control, and defeated the forces of King Asin. Asin surrendered to Gwanggaeto, even handing over his brother as a Goguryeo captive as condition for maintaining his own rule over Baekje. Gwanggaeto had finally gained superiority over its longtime rival Baekje on the Korean peninsula.

In 395, during a campaign against Baekje, the Emperor himself attacked and conquered Beili, a small part of the Khitan tribe located in central Manchuria. Its exact location is not known but it was not very far from the Songhua River.
In 400, Later Yan, founded by the Murong clan of the Xianbei in present-day Liaoning province, attacked Goguryeo. Gwanggaeto responded swiftly, recovering most of the territory seized by the Xianbei and driving most of them from Goguryeo. Then in 402, he decided to launch an attack on Later Yan itself, determined to protect his Kingdom from further threat. In the same year Gwanggaeto defeated the Xienpei, seizing some of their border fortresses. In 404, he invaded Liaodong and took the entire Liaodong Peninsula.
The Xianbei did not watch idly as Goguryeo forces took over their lands. In 405, forces of the Later Yan crossed the Liao River, and attacked Goguryeo but were defeated by Gwanggaeto. The Murong Xianbei invaded once again the following year, but yet again the Goguryeo king was able to repel them. Gwanggaeto led several more campaigns against Xianbei as well as against Khitan tribes in Inner Mongolia, which he brought under his control. In 408, the Emperor sent a peace delegate to Gao Yun, then ruler of Later Yan/Northern Yan, to broker a settlement between the two dynasties, because Gao Yun descended from the Goguryeo royal house as well. Goguryeo control over the Liaoning region remained strong until the Tang Dynasty seized the area as a part of its war against Goguryeo in the late 7th century.
In 410 Gwanggaeto began his conquest of the Dongbuyeo. The Dongbuyeo was no match for the massive army of Goguryeo, and it suffered a series of defeat, finally surrendering to Goguryeo after King Gwanggaeto conquered sixty-four walled cities and more than 1,400 villages. Gwanggaeto also attacked several Malgal and Ainu tribes further north, bringing them under Goguryeo domination.

Emperor Gwanggaeto died of unknown disease in 413, at the age of thirty-nine. Although Gwanggaeto ruled for only twenty-two years and died fairly young, his conquests are said to mark the high tide of Korean history. Except for the period of 200 years beginning with his son and successor, King Jangsu, and the later kingdom of Balhae, Korea never before or since ruled such a vast territory. There is evidence that Goguryeo's maximum extent lay even further west, in present-day Mongolia, bordered by the Rouran and Göktürks. Gwanggaeto is also given credit for establishing the reign titles that were recorded for the first time in Korean history, a symbolic gesture elevating Goguryeo monarchs as equals to their Chinese counterparts.
Today, Emperor Gwanggaeto the Great is one of two rulers of Korea who were given the title 'Great' after their name (the other one being King Sejong the Great of Joseon, who created the Korean alphabet). He is regarded by Koreans as one of the greatest heroes of their history, and is often taken as a potent symbol of Korean nationalism. Recently, the People's Republic of China launched its program of attempting to incorporate the history of Goguryeo within the context of Chinese history, which has been met with indignation from Koreans.
The Gwanggaeto Stele, a six-meter monument erected by Emperor Jangsu in 414, was rediscovered in Manchuria in 1875 by a Chinese scholar. Although the stele gives us a great amount of information of his reign, it also caused a controversy about historical view. This is because it contains several references to Japan. Those stories of Wa (Japan) are:
· in 391 Wa (Japan) crossed the sea and defeated Baekje and Silla and made them subjects.
· in 399 allied armies of Baekje and Wa invaded into Silla. Silla asked Goguryeo for help.
· in 400 Goguryeo expelled Wa from Silla to southern Korea.
· in 404 Wa lost the battle against Goguryeo in the southern Lelang (South Pyongan).
Among them, the story of the year 391 became very controversial as the text of the stele is not clear and it mentions Japan's presence in the Korean Peninsula in the 4th century, which Korean scholars reject. Also, Japan's presence in Korean peninsula with power in 391 is not possible for every Silla and Baekje based historical literature indicates that this did not occur. Most people find it odd that an artifact dedicated to the great achievements of Goguryeo would mention a Japanese achievement not related to Goguryeo or King Gwanggaeto. Also, historians indicate the substantial technological difference between Japan and Korea at that time. It would have been impossible for Japan to have subjugated a country which had superior technology over an ocean barrier. Korean scholars claim that the stele was intentionally damaged by the Imperial Japanese Army to provide historical precedent for the Japanese occupation of Korea. This is highly possible since Japan has manipulated several historical documents during its Imperial era in early 20th century. The Korean scholars claim that the passage should be interpreted as:
· in 391 Wa (Japan) crossed the sea. However, Goguryeo defeated Baekje and Wa (Japan) and made them [Baekje, Silla, Gaya, and Wa] subjects.
It is currently almost impossible to have consensus over this issue between Korean and Japanese scholars due to nationalism. This disagreement subsequently affected the project of writing a common history textbook among Korea, Japan, and China.

There were three leaders of ancient Carthage who were known as Hanno the Great, according to two historians (the Picards).[1] These figures they call for convenience: Hanno I the Great, Hanno II the Great, and Hanno III the Great.[2] According to another historian (Warmington), there were three ancients of Carthage called Hanno "given the same nickname", that is the Great, but he conjectures that it was a family nickname or a term not well understood by the ancient Greek or Roman writers. Warmington discusses only two of them (I and II), but he does not use the "I" or "II".[3] Another historian (Lancel) mentions only one Hanno the Great, namely Hanno "I" the Great. The one already referred to here as "Hanno II the Great" he discusses but calls him simply "Hanno".[4] Of course, it is an anomaly for multiple people to be called Hanno the Great. In all, there were many historical figures named Hanno in ancient Carthage.[5]

Hanno the Great was a politician and military leader of the 4th century BC.
His title, according to Justin,[6] was princeps Cathaginiensium. It is considered more likely that the title signifies first among equals, rather than being a title of nobility or royalty.[7][8]
His rival Suniatus was called the potentissimus Poenorum, or "the most powerful of the Carthaginians", in the year 368. Several years later Suniatus was accused of high treason (for correspondence with Syracuse) and probably executed.[9][10]
In 367 Hanno the Great commanded a fleet of 200 ships which won a decisive naval victory over the Greeks of Sicily. His victory effectively blocked the plans of Dionysius I of Syracuse to attack Lilybaeum, a city allied to Carthage in western Sicily.[11]
For about twenty years Hanno the Great was the leading figure of Carthage, and perhaps the wealthiest. In the 340s he schemed to become the tyrant. After distributing food to the populace, the time for a show of force came and he utilized for that purpose the native slaves and a Berber chieftain. Although not a military threat to Carthage, Hanno the Great was captured, found to be a traitor, and tortured to death. Many members of his family were also put to death.[12]
Yet later his son Gisgo was given the command of seventy ships of Carthage manned by Greek mercenaries and sent to Lilybaeum, after which peace was negotiated by Carthage with Timoleon of Syracuse, c. 340. Thereafter, this family's prestige and influence at Carthage would tell in later generations.[13]
Hanno I the Great was probably an ancestor of Hanno II the Great.[14][15]

Hanno the Great was a wealthy Carthaginian aristocrat in the 3rd century BC.
Hanno's wealth was based on the land he owned in Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, and during the First Punic War he led the faction in Carthage that was opposed to continuing the war against Roman Republic. He preferred to continue conquering territory in Africa rather than fight a naval war against Rome that would bring him no personal gain. In these efforts, he was opposed by the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca. Hanno demobilized the Carthaginian navy in 244 BC, giving Rome time to rebuild its navy and finally defeat Carthage by 241 BC.
After the war, Hanno refused to pay the mercenaries who had been promised money and rewards by Hamilcar. The mercenaries revolted, and Hanno took control of the Carthaginian army to attempt to defeat them. His attempt failed and he gave control of the army back to Hamilcar. Eventually, they both cooperated to crush the rebels in 238 BC.
His nickname "the Great" was apparently earned because of his conquests among the African enemies of Carthage,[16] and he continued to oppose war with Rome, which would necessarily involve naval engagements. During the Second Punic War, he led the anti-war faction in Carthage, and is blamed for preventing reinforcements from being sent to Hamilcar's son Hannibal after his victory at the Battle of Cannae. After Carthage's defeat at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, he was among the ambassadors to negotiate peace with the Romans.

The third Hanno the Great was an ultra-conservative politician at Carthage during the 2nd century BC


==

هناك ثلاثة اشخاص اسمهم هانو العظيم عاشوا قبل الميلاد ولا يعرف شي عن طفوتهم

Eudes-Henry (also Odo, or Eudes-Henri) (946 – 15 October 1002), called the Great, was Count of Autun, Avallon, and Beaune and Duke of Burgundy from 965 to his death. He was the second son of Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, and Hedwige of Saxony and thus the younger brother of King Hugh Capet.

As Odo, he entered the church at a young age and was a cleric at the time of the death of his brother Otto, Duke of Burgundy, on 22 February 965. He was elected by the Burgundian counts to succeed his brother and they gave him the name Henry.
In 973, he married Gerberga of Mâcon, the widow of Adalbert II of Italy, who had sought refuge at Autun. Through Gerberga, he had a stepson named Otto William. He married a second time to Gersenda, daughter of William II of Gascony.
He died without any children of his own by his two wives and was succeeded by his stepson, Otto-William. His illegitimate children may be the progenitors of the line of the counts of Vergy.

Henry IV (13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), Henri-Quatre, was King of France from 1589 to 1610 and King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610. He was the first monarch of the Bourbon branch of the Capetian dynasty in France.
As a Huguenot, Henry was involved in the Wars of Religion before ascending the throne in 1589. Before his coronation as King of France at Chartres, he changed his faith from Calvinism to Catholicism and, in 1598, he enacted the Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed religious liberties to the Protestants, thereby effectively ending the civil war. One of the most popular French kings, both during and after his reign, Henry showed great care for the welfare of his subjects and displayed an unusual religious tolerance for the time. He was assassinated by François Ravaillac, a fanatical Catholic.
He is the inspiration behind King Ferdinand of Navarre in William Shakespeare'sLove's Labour's Lost.

Henri de Bourbon was born in Pau, the capital of the French province of Béarn.[2] His parents were Queen Jeanne III
امه
) Jeanne d'Albret (16 November 1528 – 9 June 1572), also known as Jeanne III or Joan III, was the queen regnant of Navarre from 1555 to 1572(

and King Antoine of Navarre.
والده
)Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme (22 April 1518 – 17 November 1562) was head of the House of Bourbon from 1537 to 1562, and jure uxoris King of Navarre from 1555 to 1562(.
Although baptised as a Roman Catholic, Henry was raised as a Protestant by his mother; Jeanne declared Calvinism the religion of Navarre. As a teenager, Henry joined the Huguenot forces in the French Wars of Religion. On June 9, 1572, upon Jeanne's death, he became King Henry III of Navarre.[4]

Henry of Navarre became the legal heir to the French throne in 1584 upon the death of Francis, Duke of Alençon, brother and heir to the Catholic King Henry III, who had succeeded Charles IX in 1574. Because Henry of Navarre was the next senior agnatic descendant of King Louis IX, King Henry III had no choice but to recognise him as the legitimate successor.[7] Salic law disinherited the king's sisters and all others who could claim descent by the distaff line. However, since Henry of Navarre was a Huguenot, this set off the War of the Three Henries phase of the French Wars of Religion. The third Henry, the Duke of Guise, pushed for complete suppression of the Huguenots, and had much support among Catholic loyalists. This set off a series of campaigns and counter-campaigns culminating in the battle of Coutras.[8] In December 1588, Henry III had Henry I of Guise murdered,[9] along with his brother, Louis Cardinal de Guise.[10] This increased the tension further and Henry III was assassinated shortly thereafter by a fanatic monk.[11]
Upon the death of Henry III on 2 August 1589, Henry of Navarre nominally became king of France. But the Catholic League, strengthened by support from outside, especially from Spain, was strong enough to force him to the south. He had to set about winning his kingdom by military conquest, aided by money and troops sent by Elizabeth I of England. Henry's Catholic uncle, Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, was proclaimed king by the League, but the Cardinal himself was Henry's prisoner.[12] Henry was victorious at Ivry and Arques, but failed to take Paris after laying siege to the city in 1590.[13]
After the death of the old Cardinal in 1590, the League could not agree on a new candidate. While some supported various Guise candidates, the strongest candidate was probably Isabella Clara Eugenia, the daughter of Philip II of Spain, whose mother Elisabeth had been the eldest daughter of Henry II of France.[14] The prominence of her candidacy hurt the League, which became suspect as agents of the foreign Spanish. Nevertheless Henry remained unable to take control of Paris.

Henry's first marriage was not a happy one, and the couple remained childless. Henry and Margaret had separated even before Henry had succeeded to the throne in August 1589, and Margaret lived for many years in the château of Usson in Auvergne. After Henry became king of France, it was of the utmost importance that he provide an heir to the crown in order to avoid the problem of a disputed succession. Henry himself favoured the idea of obtaining an annulment of his marriage to Margaret, and taking as a bride Gabrielle d'Estrées, who had already borne him three children. Henry's councilors strongly opposed this idea, but the matter was resolved unexpectedly by Gabrielle's sudden death in the early hours of 10 April 1599, after she had given birth to a premature stillborn son. His marriage to Margaret was annulled in 1599, and he then married Marie de' Medici in 1600.
For the royal entry of Marie into Papal Avignon, 19 November 1600, the Jesuit scholars bestowed on Henry the title of the Hercule Gaulois ("Gallic Hercules", illustration), justifying the extravagant flattery with a genealogy that traced the origin of the House of Navarre to a nephew of Hercules' son Hispalus.[21]

During his reign, Henry IV worked through his faithful right-hand man, the minister Maximilien de Béthune, duc de Sully (1560–1641), to regularise state finance, promote agriculture, drain swamps to create productive crop lands, undertake many public works, and encourage education, as with the creation of the Collège Royal Henri-le-Grand in La Flèche (today Prytanée Militaire de la Flèche). He and Sully protected forests from further devastation, built a new system of tree-lined highways, and constructed new bridges and canals. He had a 1200 m canal built in the park at the royal Château at Fontainebleau (which can be fished today), and ordered the planting of pines, elms and fruit trees.
The king renewed Paris as a great city, with the Pont Neuf,[22] which still stands today, constructed over the Seine river to connect the Right and Left Banks of the city. Henry IV also had the Place Royale built (since 1800 known as Place des Vosges), and added the Grande Galerie to the Louvre. More than 400 metres long and thirty-five metres wide, this huge addition was built along the bank of the Seine River, and at the time was the longest edifice of its kind in the world. King Henry IV, a promoter of the arts by all classes of people, invited hundreds of artists and craftsmen to live and work on the building's lower floors. This tradition continued for another two hundred years, until Emperor Napoleon I banned it. The art and architecture of his reign have since become known as the "Henry IV style".
King Henry's vision extended beyond France, and he financed several expeditions of Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts and Samuel de Champlain to North America that saw France lay claim to Canada.[23]

During Henry's struggle for the crown, Spain had been the principal backer of the Catholic League, trying to thwart Henry. A Spanish army from the Spanish Netherlands, under Alexander Farnese intervened in 1590 against Henry and foiled his siege of Paris. Another Spanish army helped the nobles opposing Henry to win the Battle of Craon against his troops in 1592. After Henry's coronation, the war continued as an official tug-of-war between the French and Spanish states, until terminated by the Peace of Vervins in 1598.
This enabled Henry to turn his attention to Savoy, fighting a war against this duchy, that was ended by the Treaty of Lyon in 1601 which effected territorial exchanges between France and the Duchy of Savoy.

In 1609 Henry's intervention helped to settle diplomatically the War of the Jülich succession.
It was widely believed that in 1610 Henry was preparing for a war against the Holy Roman Empire, however the preparations were terminated by his assassination and the subsequent rapprochement with Spain under the regency of Marie de' Medici.

Even before Henry's accession to the French throne, the French Huguenots were in contact with the Moriscos in plans against Habsburg Spain in the 1570s.[25] Around 1575, plans were made for a combined attack of Aragonese Moriscos and Huguenots from Béarn under Henri de Navarre against Spanish Aragon, in agreement with the king of Algiers and the Ottoman Empire, but these projects foundered with the arrival of John of Austria in Aragon and the disarmament of the Moriscos.[26][27] In 1576, a three-pronged fleet from Constantinople was planned to disembark between Murcia and Valencia while the French Huguenots would invade from the north and the Moriscos accomplish their uprising, but the Ottoman fleet failed to arrive.[26]
After his crowning, Henry IV continued the policy of Franco-Ottoman alliance and received an embassy from Mehmed III in 1601.[28][29] In 1604, a "Peace Treaty and Capitulation" was signed between Henry IV and the Ottoman Sultan Ahmet I, giving numerous advantages to France in the Ottoman Empire.[29]
In 1606–7, Henry IV sent Arnoult de Lisle as Ambassador to Morocco, in order to obtain the observance of past friendship treaties. An embassy was sent to Tunisia in 1608, led by Savary de Brêves.[30]

During the reign of Henry IV, various enterprises were set up to develop trade to faraway lands. In December 1600, a company was formed through the association of Saint-Malo, Laval and Vitré to trade with the Moluccas and Japan.[31] Two ships, the Croissant and the Corbin, were sent around the Cape in May 1601. One was wrecked in the Maldives, leading to the adventure of François Pyrard de Laval, who managed to return to France in 1611.[31][32] The second ship, onboard which was François Martin de Vitré, reached Ceylon and traded with Aceh in Sumatra, but was captured by the Dutch on the return leg at Cape Finisterre.[31][32] François Martin de Vitré was the first Frenchman to write an account of travels to the Far East in 1604, at the request of Henry IV, and from that time numerous accounts on Asia would be published.[33]
From 1604 to 1609, following the return of François Martin de Vitré, Henry IV of France developed a strong enthusiasm for travel to Asia and attempted to set up a French East India Company on the model of England and the Netherlands.[32][33][34] On 1 June 1604, he issued letters patent to Dieppe merchants to form the Dieppe Company, giving them exclusive rights to Asian trade for 15 years. No ships were sent, however, until 1616.[31] In 1609, another adventurer, Pierre-Olivier Malherbe returned from a circumnavigation and informed Henry IV of his adventures.[33] He had visited China and in India had an encounter with Akbar.[33]

Henry IV proved to be a man of vision and courage. Instead of waging costly wars to suppress opposing nobles, Henry simply paid them off. As king, he adopted policies and undertook projects to improve the lives of all subjects, which made him one of the country's most popular rulers ever.
A declaration often attributed to him is:
“
Si Dieu me prête vie, je ferai qu’il n’y aura point de laboureur en mon royaume qui n’ait les moyens d’avoir le dimanche une poule dans son pot!
(If God keeps me, I will make sure that there is no working man in my kingdom who does not have the means to have a chicken in the pot every Sunday!)


This statement epitomizes the peace and relative prosperity Henry brought to France after decades of religious war, and demonstrates how well he understood the plight of the French worker or peasant farmer. This real concern for the living conditions of the 'lowly' population – who in the final analysis provided the economic basis on which the power of the king and the great nobles rested – was perhaps without parallel among the Kings of France. It also made Henry IV extremely popular with the population.
Henry's forthright manner, physical courage and military successes also contrasted dramatically with the sickly, effete languor of the last tubercular Valois kings, as evinced by his blunt assertion that he ruled with "weapon in hand and arse in the saddle" (on a le bras armé et le cul sur la selle). He was also a great womanizer, fathering many children by a number of his mistresses.

Although he was a man of kindness, compassion and good humor, and was much loved by his people, Henry was the subject of attempts on his life by Pierre Barrière in August 1593[36] and Jean Châtel in December 1594.[37]
King Henry IV was ultimately assassinated in Paris on 14 May 1610 by a Catholic fanatic, François Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to death in Rue de la Ferronnerie, while his coach's progress was stopped by traffic congestion for the Queen's coronation ceremony,[38][39] as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats. Hercule de Rohan, duc de Montbazon was with him when he was killed; Montbazon himself was wounded but survived. Henry was buried at the Saint Denis Basilica.
His widow, Marie de' Medici, served as regent for their 9-year-old son, Louis XIII, until 1617.[40]

The reign of Henry IV had a lasting impact on the French people for generations afterwards. A statue of him was built in his honor at the Pont Neuf in 1614, only four years after his death. Although this statue—as well as those of all the other French kings—was torn down during the French Revolution, it was the first to be rebuilt, in 1818, and it stands today on the Pont Neuf. A cult surrounding the personality of Henry IV emerged during the Restoration. The restored Bourbons were keen to play down the contested reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI and instead emphasised the reign of the benevolent Henry IV. The song "Vive Henri IV" ("Long Live Henry IV") was used during the Restoration as an unofficial anthem of France, played in the absence of the king. In addition, when Princess Caroline of Naples and Sicily (a descendant of his) gave birth to a male heir to the throne of France, seven months after the assassination of her husband Charles Ferdinand, duc de Berry by a Republican fanatic, the boy was conspicuously named Henri, in reference to his forefather Henry IV. The boy was also baptised in the traditional way of Béarn/Navarre, with a spoon of Jurançon wine and some garlic, as had been done when Henry IV was baptised in Pau (although this custom had not been followed by any later Bourbon king).
Henry IV's popularity continued, when the first edition (in French) of his biography, Histoire du Roy Henry le Grand, was published in Amsterdam in 1661. It was written by Hardouin de Péréfixe de Beaumont, successively Bishop of Rhodez and Archbishop of Paris, primarily for the edification of Louis XIV, grandson of Henry IV. A translation into English was made by James Dauncey for another grandson, King Charles II of England. An English edition came of this, published at London two years later in 1663. Numerous French editions have been published. However, only one more (with disputable accuracy) English edition was published, before 1896, when a new translation was published.
He also gave his name to the Henry IV style of architecture, which he patronised. He is the eponymous subject of the royal anthem of France, "Marche Henri IV

38 - هيرود العظيم

· Herod the Great (73/74 BC-4 BC), King of Judea

هيرود العظيم, ملك اليهود ، اردني

مما لا يعرفه الكثيرون عن الاردن , ان اعظم ملوك اليهود كان ادومياً ,نبطياً ,اردنياً. هيرود العظيم او هيرود الاول, ولد عام ٧٣ ق.م, من ابوين ادوميين, اعتنقوا اليهوديه , والده انتباتر ووالدته سيبرو , وجده انتيباس حاكم ادوميا اللذي عين من قبل يهونتان , لم يحدد التاريخ اذا كانت اسرتهُ ارغمت على اعتناق اليهوديه خلال حملة التهويد الاجباريه على عهد الملك اليهودي يهونتان ١٠٤- ٧٦ ق.م, او عندما اجتاح اليهود ارض الادوميين على عهد كبير الكهنه يهوحنن الاول ١٣٥-١٠٤ ق.م, وبعهد الكاهن الاعلى يهوحنن الثاني ٦٧ - ٤٠ ق.م, عُينَ انتباتر والد هيرود كمستشار للكاهن لما كان يمتاز به من ذكاءِ وفطنه وحكمه. كان انتباتر بعيد النظر , لذلك ارسل بابنه هيرود الى حاضرة العالم انذاك, مدينة روما, وهنالك نهل العلم والسياسه بمدارس النبلاء, ممن سيصبحون اباطرة روما فيما بعد. عندما عاد هيرود الى القدس, عينه الكاهن الاعلى كحاكم على منطقة الجليل ولم يزد عمره عن ١٥عام, وعُين شقيقه فصال ,كحاكم على مدينة القدس وضواحيها, ورغم صغرِ سنه الا انه اثبت جداره وحزم منذ بداية توليه لمنصبه, حيث قام على الفور بالقاء القبض واعدام حزيقياس اللذي كان يتزعم عصابه من قاطعي الطرق اللذين ارهبوا السكان فترةً من الزمن, فانتشر الخبر وعلم الجميع بجرأة وعنفوان هذا الحاكم الشاب, لم يرضى اليهود المتنفذين عن تعيين هيرود واخيه كحكام, بل حاولوا التفرقه بين الكاهن الاعلى يهوحنن الثاني وبين انتيباتر , وطالبوا بمحاكمة هيرود لقتله يهودياً امام المجلس اليهودي( سانهيدرين) , لبى هيرود الطلب وجاء امام المجلس ولكن لم يكن لوحده , بل جاء مع قواته مما فاجاء اعضاء المجلس ارعبهم, اعفي عنه من جميع التهم بقوة السلاح, ولمعرفة المجلس بالود اللذي يكنه الكاهن الاعلى والحاكم الروماني لسوريا سيكتس قيصر لهيرود.

هيرود العظيم
Herod (Hebrew: Hordos, Greek:), also known as Herod the Great (born 73 or 74 BCE, died 4 BCE in Jericho[1]), was a Roman client king of Judea. His epithet of "the Great" is widely disputed as he is described as "a madman who murdered his own family and a great many rabbis."[ He is also known for his colossal building projects in Jerusalem and elsewhere, and the construction of the port at Caesarea Maritima. Important details of his biography are gleaned from the works of the 1st century CE historian Josephus Flavius.
The Romans made Herod's son Herod Archelaus ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (biblical Edom) from 4 BCE to 6 CE, referred to as the tetrarchy of Judea. Archelaus was judged incompetent by the Roman emperor Augustus who then combined Samaria, Judea proper and Idumea into Iudaea province[8] under rule of a prefect until 41. Herod's other son Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee from 4 BCE – 39 CE.
Biography

Copper coin of Herod, bearing the legend "ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΗΡΩΔΟΥ" ("Basileōs Hērōdou") on the obverse
Herod was born around 74 BCE in the south (Idumea was the most southern region). He was the second son of Antipater the Idumaean, a high-ranked official under Ethnarch Hyrcanus II, and Cypros, a Nabatean.
A loyal supporter of Hyrcanus II, Antipater appointed Herod governor of Galilee at 25, and his elder brother, Phasael, governor of Jerusalem. He enjoyed the backing of Rome but his brutality was condemned by the Sanhedrin.
In 43 BCE, following the chaos caused by Antipater offering financial support to Caesar's murderers, Antipater was poisoned. Herod, backed by the Roman Army, executed his father's murderer. After the battle of Philippi towards the end of 42 BCE, he convinced Mark Antony and Octavian that his father had been forced to help Caesar's murderers. After Antony marched into Asia, Herod was named tetrarch of Galilee by the Romans.
Two years later Antigonus, Hyrcanus' nephew, took the throne from his uncle with the help of the Parthians. Herod fled to Rome to plead with the Romans to restore him to power. There he was elected "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate.[13] Josephus puts this in the year of the consulship of Calvinus and Pollio (40 BCE), but Appian places it in 39 BCE.[10] Herod went back to Judea to win his kingdom from Antigonus and at the same time he married the teenage niece of Antigonus, Mariamne (known as Mariamne I), in an attempt to secure a claim to the throne and gain some Jewish favor. However, Herod already had a wife, Doris, and a three-year-old son, Antipater, and chose therefore to banish Doris and her child.
Three years later, Herod and the Romans finally captured Jerusalem and executed Antigonus. Herod took the role as sole ruler of Judea and the title of basileus (Gr. Βασιλευς, king) for himself, ushering in the Herodian Dynasty and ending the Hasmonean Dynasty. Josephus reports this as being in the year of the consulship of Agrippa and Gallus (37 BCE), but also says that it was exactly 27 years after Jerusalem fell to Pompey, which would indicate 36 BCE. (Cassius Dio also reports that in 37 "the Romans accomplished nothing worthy of note" in the area.[14]) According to Josephus, he ruled for 37 years, 34 years of them after capturing Jerusalem.
As Herod's family had converted to Judaism, his religious commitment had come into question by some elements of Jewish society.[15] When John Hyrcanus conquered the region of Idumaea (the Edom of the Hebrew Bible) in 140–130 BCE, he required all Idumaeans to obey Jewish law or to leave; most Idumaeans thus converted to Judaism, which meant that they had to be circumcised.[16] While King Herod publicly identified himself as a Jew and was considered as such by some,[17] this religious identification was undermined by the decadent lifestyle of the Herodians, which would have earned them the antipathy of observant Jews.[18]
Herod later executed several members of his own family, including his wife Mariamne

39- هيو العظيم

Hugh the Great or Hugues le Grand (898 – 16 June 956) was duke of the Franks and count of Paris, son of King Robert I of France and nephew of King Odo.
والده
) Robert I (15 August 866 – 15 June 923), King of Western Francia (922–923), was the younger son of Robert the Strong, count of Anjou, and the brother of Odo, who became king of the Western Franks in 888.(

He was born in Paris, Île-de-France, France. His eldest son was Hugh Capet who became King of France in 987. His family is known as the Robertians.
Hugh's first wife was Judith, daughter of Roger Comte du Maine & his wife Rothilde
Hugh's second wife was Eadhild, daughter of Edward the Elder, king of England, and sister of King Athelstan. At the death of Rudolph, duke of Burgundy, in 936, Hugh was in possession of nearly all of the region between the Loire and the Seine, corresponding to the ancient Neustria, with the exception of the territory ceded to the Normans in 911. He took a very active part in bringing Louis IV (d'Outremer) from the Kingdom of England in 936, but in the same year Hugh married Hedwige of Saxony, a daughter of Henry the Fowler of Germany and Matilda of Ringelheim, and soon quarrelled with Louis.
Hugh even paid homage to the EmperorOtto the Great, and supported him in his struggle against Louis. When Louis fell into the hands of the Normans in 945, he was handed over to Hugh, who released him in 946 only on condition that he should surrender the fortress of Laon. At the council of Ingelheim (948) Hugh was condemned, under pain of excommunication, to make reparation to Louis. It was not, however, until 950 that the powerful vassal became reconciled with his suzerain and restored Laon. But new difficulties arose, and peace was not finally concluded until 953.
On the death of Louis IV, Hugh was one of the first to recognize Lothair as his successor, and, at the intervention of Queen Gerberga, was instrumental in having him crowned. In recognition of this service Hugh was invested by the new king with the duchies of Burgundy (his suzerainty over which had already been nominally recognized by Louis IV) and Aquitaine. But his expedition in 955 to take possession of Aquitaine was unsuccessful. In the same year, however, Giselbert, duke of Burgundy, acknowledged himself his vassal and betrothed his daughter to Hugh's son Otto. At Giselbert's death (8 April 956) Hugh became effective master of the duchy, but died soon afterwards, on the 16 or 17 June 956, in Dourdan.
Hugh's daughter Beatrice married Frederick I, Duke of Upper Lorraine, thus making Hugh an ancestor of the Habsburg family. From their son Hugh Capet sprung forth the Capetian dynasty, one of the most powerful dynasties in Europe.
In the Divine Comedy Dante meets the soul of Duke Hugh in Purgatory, lamenting the avarice of his descendants

· Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (1057–1101)
Hugh I of Vermandois (1057 – October 18, 1101), called Magnus or the Great, was a younger son of Henry I of France (Henry I (4 May 1008 – 4 August 1060)

and younger brother of Philip I.
He was in his own right Count of Vermandois, but an ineffectual leader and soldier, great only in his boasting. Indeed, Steven Runciman is certain that his nickname Magnus (greater or elder), applied to him by William of Tyre, is a copyist's error, and should be Minus (younger), referring to Hugh as younger brother of the King of France.
In early 1096 Hugh and Philip began discussing the First Crusade after news of the Council of Clermont reached them in Paris. Although Philip could not participate, as he had been excommunicated, Hugh was said to have been influenced to join the Crusade after an eclipse of the moon on February 11, 1096.
That summer Hugh's army left France for Italy, where they would cross the Adriatic Sea into territory of the Byzantine Empire, unlike the other Crusader armies who were travelling by land. On the way, many of the soldiers led by fellow Crusader Emicho joined Hugh's army after Emicho was defeated by the Hungarians, whose land he had been pillaging. Hugh crossed the Adriatic from Bari in Southern Italy, but many of his ships were destroyed in a storm off the Byzantine port of Dyrrhachium.
Hugh and most of his army were rescued and escorted to Constantinople, where they arrived in November 1096. Prior to his arrival, Hugh sent an arrogant, insulting letter to Eastern Roman Emperor Alexius I Comnenus. According to the Emperor's biography written by his daughter Anna Comnena (the Alexiad), he demanded that Alexius meet with him:
"Know, O King, that I am King of Kings, and superior to all, who are under the sky. You are now permitted to greet me, on my arrival, and to receive me with magnificence, as befits my nobility."[2]
Alexius was already wary of the armies about to arrive, after the unruly mob led by Peter the Hermit had passed through earlier in the year. Alexius kept Hugh in custody in a monastery until Hugh swore an oath of vassalage to him.
After the Crusaders had successfully made their way across Seljuk territory and, in 1098, captured Antioch, Hugh was sent back to Constantinople to appeal for reinforcements from Alexius. Alexius was uninterested*(see below), however, and Hugh, instead of returning to Antioch to help plan the siege of Jerusalem, went back to France. There he was scorned for not having fulfilled his vow as a Crusader to complete a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and Pope Paschal II threatened to excommunicate him. He joined the minor Crusade of 1101, but was wounded in battle with the Turks in September, and died of his wounds in October in Tarsus.
· In "Urban's Crusade--Success or Failure"(Key, 1948) it is argued, indeed to the contrary, that the emperor was disturbed by Hugh's report and the disquieting rumors emitting from Antioch (on Bohemond's intent and conduct) and promptly set out to prepare another expedition: "...Alexius immediately began preparations for another expedition, and he furthermore sent envoys to the crusaders to announce its coming."

==

· Humphrey I de Bohun (died c. 1123), Anglo-Norman aristocrat
Humphrey (VII) de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (1276 – 16 March 1322) was a member of a powerful Anglo-Norman family of the Welsh Marches and was one of the Ordainers who opposed Edward II's excesses.
Family background
Humphrey de Bohun's birth year is uncertain although several contemporary sources indicate that it was 1276.
His father was Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford (Humphrey (VI) de Bohun (c. 1249[a] – 31 December 1298)
and his mother was Maud de Fiennes, daughter of Enguerrand II de Fiennes, chevalier, seigneur of Fiennes. He was born at Pleshey Castle, Essex.
Humphrey (VII) de Bohun succeeded his father as Earl of Hereford and Earl of Essex, and Constable of England (later called Lord High Constable). Humphrey held the title of Bearer of the Swan Badge, a heraldic device passed down in the Bohun family. This device did not appear on their coat of arms, (az, a bend ar cotised or, between 6 lioncels or) nor their crest (gu, doubled erm, a lion gardant crowned), but it does appear on Humphrey's personal seal (illustration).
Scotland
Humphrey was one of several earls and barons under Edward I who laid siege to Caerlaverock Castle in Scotland in 1300 and later took part in many campaigns in Scotland. He also loved tourneying and gained a reputation as an "elegant" fop. In one of the campaigns in Scotland Humphrey evidently grew bored and departed for England to take part in a tournament along with Piers Gaveston and other young barons and knights. On return all of them fell under Edward I's wrath for desertion, but were forgiven. It is probable that Gaveston's friend, Edward (the future Edward II) had given them permission to depart. Later Humphrey became one of Gaveston's and Edward II's bitterest opponents.
He would also have been associating with young Robert Bruce during the early campaigns in Scotland, since Bruce, like many other Scots and Border men, moved back and forth from English allegiance to Scottish. Robert Bruce, King Robert I of Scotland, is closely connected to the Bohuns. Between the time that he swore his last fealty to Edward I in 1302 and his defection four years later, Bruce stayed for the most part in Annandale, rebuilding his castle of Lochmaben in stone, making use of its natural moat. Rebelling and taking the crown of Scotland in February, 1306, Bruce was forced to fight a war against England which went poorly for him at first, while Edward I still lived. After nearly all his family were killed or captured he had to flee to the isle of Rathlin, Ireland. His properties in England and Scotland were confiscated.
Humphrey de Bohun received many of Robert Bruce's forfeited properties. It is unknown whether Humphrey was a long-time friend or enemy of Robert Bruce, but they were nearly the same age and the lands of the two families in Essex and Middlesex lay very close to each other. After Bruce's self-exile, Humphrey took Lochmaben, and Edward I awarded him Annandale and the castle. During this period of chaos, when Bruce's queen, Elizabeth de Burgh, daughter of the Earl of Ulster, was captured by Edward I and taken prisoner, Hereford and his wife Elizabeth became her custodians. She was exchanged for Humphrey after Bannockburn in 1314. Lochmaben was from time to time retaken by the Scots but remained in the Bohun family for many years, in the hands of Humphrey's son William, Earl of Northampton, who held and defended it until his death in 1360.
Battle of Bannockburn
At the Battle of Bannockburn (23–24 June 1314), Humphrey de Bohun should have been given command of the army because that was his responsibility as Constable of England. However, since the execution of Piers Gaveston in 1312 Humphrey had been out of favour with Edward II, who gave the Constableship for the 1314 campaign to the youthful and inexperienced Earl of Gloucester, Gilbert de Clare. Nevertheless, on the first day, de Bohun insisted on being one of the first to lead the cavalry charge. In the melee and cavalry rout between the Bannock Burn and the Scots' camp he was not injured although his rash young nephew Henry de Bohun, who could have been no older than about 22, charged alone at Robert Bruce and was killed by Bruce's axe.
On the second day Gloucester was killed at the start of battle. Hereford fought throughout the day, leading a large company of Welsh and English knights and archers. The archers had success at breaking up the Scots schiltrons until they were overrun by the Scots cavalry. When the battle was lost Bohun retreated with the Earl of Angus and several other barons, knights and men to Bothwell Castle, seeking a safe haven. However, all the refugees who entered the castle were taken prisoner by its formerly pro-English governor Walter fitz Gilbert who, like many Lowland knights, declared for Bruce as soon as word came of the Scottish King's victory. Humphrey de Bohun was ransomed by Edward II, his brother-in-law, on the pleading of his wife Elizabeth. This was one of the most interesting ransoms in English history. The Earl was traded for Bruce's queen, Elizabeth de Burgh and daughter, Marjorie Bruce, two bishops amongst other important Scots captives in England. Isabella MacDuff, Countess of Buchan, and who had crowned Robert Bruce in 1306 and for years had been locked in a cage outside Berwick, was not included; presumably she had died in captivity.[1]
Ordainer
Like his father, grandfather, and great-great-grandfather, this Humphrey de Bohun was careful to insist that the king obey Magna Carta and other baronially-established safeguards against monarchic tyranny. He was a leader of the reform movements that promulgated the Ordinances of 1311 and fought to insure their execution.
The subsequent revival of royal authority and the growing ascendancy of the Despensers (Hugh the elder and younger) led de Bohun and other barons to rebel against the king again in 1322. De Bohun had special reason for opposing the Despensers, for he had lost some of his estates in the Welsh Marches to their rapacity and he felt they had besmirched his honour. In 1316 De Bohun had been ordered to lead the suppression of the revolt of Llywelyn Bren in Glamorgan which he did successfully. When Llewelyn surrendered to him the Earl promised to intercede for him and fought to have him pardoned. Instead Hugh the younger Despenser had Llewelyn executed without a proper trial. Hereford and the other marcher lords used Llywelyn Bren's death as a symbol of Despenser tyranny.
Death at Boroughbridge
The rebel forces were halted by loyalist troops at the wooden bridge at Boroughbridge, Yorkshire, where Humphrey de Bohun, leading an attempt to storm the bridge, met his death on 16 March 1322.
Although the details have been called into question by a few historians, his death may have been particularly gory. As recounted by Ian Mortimer[2]:
"[The 4th Earl of] Hereford led the fight on the bridge, but he and his men were caught in the arrow fire. Then one of de Harclay's pikemen, concealed beneath the bridge, thrust upwards between the planks and skewered the Earl of Hereford through the anus, twisting the head of the iron pike into his intestines. His dying screams turned the advance into a panic."'
Humphrey de Bohun may have contributed to the failure of the reformers' aims. There is evidence that he suffered for some years, especially after his countess's death in 1316, from clinical depression.

القيصر الروسي إيفان الثالث (عاش بين 1440 - 1505 وحكم بين 1462 - 1505) ويطلق عليه أيضا إيفان الكبير، وهو ابن فاسيلي الثاني. أمر في القرن الخامس عشر باستدعاء مهندسين معماريين من روسيا وإيطاليا لتجديد الكرملين.
ايفان الثالث (1440 - 1505) هو الامير المعظم لموسكو وقيصر عموم روسيا الذي خلص روسيا من الاعتماد على القبيلة الذهبية وقام بتوسيع حدود الدولة.
ولد ايفان الثالث في عام 1440 وعينه أبوه فاسيلي الثاني الاعمى وليا للعهد وهو في السادسة عشرة من عمره. وتولى العرش عن عمر يناهز 22 سنة.
وشارك في الحملات العسكرية ضد التتار اعوام 1448 و1454 و1459.
ويعتبر ايفان الثالث جامعا للاراضي الروسية. وازدادت في عهده مساحة دولة موسكو من 400 الف كيلومتر مربع إلى ما يزيد عن مليوني كيلومتر مربع. وكان ايفان الثالث يضم الاراضي إلى دولته من خلال اتباع طرق دبلوماسية ماهرة وشراء الاراضي والاستحواذ عليهاا باستخدام القوة. وقام بضم امارة ياروسلافل عام 1463 وامارة روستوف عام 1474 واراضي نوفغورود الشاسعة اعوام 1471 – 1478. واعترفت امارة تفير بحكم ايفان الثالث عام 1485، وذلك بعد الحصار الطويل المفروض عليها وتم ضم امارة فياتكا ومعظم اراضي امارة ريازان عام 1489.
خاض ايفان الثالث الحربين (اعوام 1487 -1494 و1501 - 1503) مع ليتوانيا اللتين اسفرتا عن ضم القسم الأكبر من إقليم سمولينسك وامارتي نوفغورود سيفيرسكي وتشيرنيغوف إلى دولة موسكو.
رفض ايفان الثالث دفع الاتاوة لامارة القبيلة الذهبية وحرر الدولة الروسية عام 1480 من النير المغوليالتتاري الذي دام 250 سنة، وذلك بعد مواجة الجيشين الروسي والتتاري على نهر اوغرا طيلة صيف عام 1480 حين لم يتجرأ الخان المغولي احمد الانخراط في المعركة مع قوات ايفان الثالث.
ومن جهة أخرى جعل ايفان الثالث نظام الدولة نظاما قيصريا تقمع فيه اية قرائن للانقسام والانفصال أو للحريات، سياسية كانت أو اقتصادية.
قرر ايفان الثالث حساب بداية السنة ليس من 1 مارس/آذار كما كان معتادا في روسيا، بل اعتبارا من 1 سبتمبر/ايلول. وقام باعادة بناء موسكو وتشييد قصر جديد في الكرملين وبناء كاتدرائية صعود مريم العذراء.
وامر ايفان الثالث بان يلقبونه بالامير المعظم لموسكو والقيصر لعموم روسيا. واعترفت بهذا اللقب ليتوانيا عام 1494. وتم في عهده اعتماد شعار جديد لدولة موسكو، وهو عبارة عن نسر ذي رأسين، الامر الذي كان يعنى آنذاك ان موسكو تعتبر نفسها روما الثالثة، أو بالاحرى وارثة للقسطنطينية الساقطة وروما المهدمة، على حد تعبير فيلوفيه الراهب من مدينة بسكوف.
اصدر ايفان الثالث مجموعة القوانين الخاصة بتسيير امور الدولة، مما ساعد في ترسيخ النظام الاقطاعي للملكية وتشكيل طبقة النبلاء التي صار يعتمد عليها الحكم القيصري.
توفي ايفان الثالث عام 1505 بعد تعيين ابنه فاسيلي الثالث وليا للعهد.
يعد ايفان الثالث من ابرز رجال الدولة في روسيا الاقطاعية. وكان يتصف بعقل عبقري ورؤيا سياسية واسعة. ويعتبر توحيد الإمارات الروسية في دولة واحدة من أهم انجازات حكمه. وحلت دولة روسيا محل إمارة موسكو.

Ivan III Vasilyevich (Russian: Иван III Васильевич) (22 January 1440, Moscow – 27 October 1505, Moscow), also known as Ivan the Great,[1][2] was a Grand Prince of Moscow and "Grand Prince of all Rus" (Великий князь всея Руси). Sometimes referred to as the "gatherer of the Russian lands", he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde over the Rus, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. He was one of the longest-reigning Russian rulers in history
Ivan's parents were Vasily II the Blind and Yelena of Borovsk. He was co-regent with his disabled father during the later years of the latter's life. Ivan was only 22 years old when his father died.
Ivan tenaciously pursued the unifying policy of his predecessors. Nevertheless, he was cautious to the point of timidity. He avoided as far as possible any violent collision with his neighbors until all the circumstances were exceptionally favorable, always preferring to attain his ends gradually and circuitously. The Grand Duchy of Moscow had by this time become a compact and powerful state, whilst her rivals had grown weaker, a state of affairs very favorable to the speculative activity of a statesman of Ivan III's peculiar character. Before he died he made an impressive program for, centered around and directed by, Italian artists and craftsmen. His plan was able to make new buildings in Kremlin and the walls were strengthened and furnished with towers and gates. Ivan III reigned for forty three years, dying on October 27, 1505 and he left his empire to his son Vasili

شارك ايفان الثالث في الحملات ضد التتار تحت قيادة والد الكفيف وهو في سن الثامنة . وتولى ولاية العهد وعمره 16 سنة ومات ابوه العاجز وهو ما يزال في الـ 22 من العمر.

يتيم اجتماعي .

· John I of Portugal (1358–1433), King of Portugal and the Algarve

John I KG (Portuguese: João I [ʒuˈɐ̃w̃]; Lisbon, São João da Praça (extinct), 11 April 1358 – Lisbon, Castle, 14 August 1433) was King of Portugal and the Algarve in 1385–1433. He was called the Good (sometimes the Great) or of Happy Memory, more rarely and outside Portugal, in Spain, the Bastard, and was the first to use the title Lord of Ceuta.

John was the natural son of Peter I ) Peter I (Portuguese: Pedro, pronounced [ˈpedɾu]; 19 April 1320 – 18 January 1367), by a woman named Teresa, who Fernão Lopes wrote she was a noble Galician.
In the eighteenth century, António Caetano de Sousa found a document on Torre do Tombo, of the sixteenth century, where she was named Teresa Lourenço. In 1364, by request of D. Nuno Freire de Andrade, a galician Grand Master of the Order of Christ, he was created Grand Master of the Order of Aviz, by which title he was known. He became king in 1385, after the 1383–1385 Crisis.
On the death of his half-brother Ferdinand I without a male heir in October 1383, strenuous efforts were made to secure the succession for princess Beatrice, Ferdinand's only daughter. As heiress presumptive, Beatrice had married king John I of Castile, but popular sentiment was against an arrangement in which Portugal would have become virtually annexed by Castile. The 1383–1385 Crisis followed, a period of political anarchy, when no monarch ruled the country.
On 6 April 1385, the council of the kingdom (the Portuguese Cortes) met in Coimbra and declared John, then Master of Aviz, king of Portugal. This was followed by the liberation of almost all Minho only in two months, on the war against Castile and its claims to the Portuguese throne. Soon after, the king of Castile invaded again Portugal with the purpose of conquering Lisbon and removing John I from the throne. John I of Castile was accompanied by French allied cavalry while English troops and generals took the side of John (see Hundred Years' War). John I and Nuno Álvares Pereira, his loyal Constable and talented supporter, repelled the attack on the decisive Battle of Aljubarrota (14 August 1385), where the Castilian army was virtually annihilated. John I of Castile then retreated. The Castilian forces abandoned Santarém, Torres Vedras, Torres Novas, many other towns were delivered to John I by Portuguese nobles from the Castilian side and the stability of the Portuguese throne was permanently secured.
On 11 February 1387, John I married Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt, who had proved to be a worthy ally, consolidating the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance that endures to the present day.
The wedding of João I of Portugal, 11 February 1387 with Philippa of Lancaster, by XV Century painter and manuscript illuminator from around Lille, now in France, the Master of Wavrin, a.k.a. Master of Jean Wavrin
After the death of John I of Castile in 1390, without leaving issue by Beatrice, John I of Portugal ruled in peace and pursued the economic development of the country. The only significant military action was the siege and conquest of the city of Ceuta in 1415. By this step he aimed to control navigation of the African coast. But in the broader perspective, this was the first step opening the Arabian world to medieval Europe, which in fact led to the Age of Discovery with Portuguese explorers sailing across the whole world.
Contemporaneous writers describe John as a man of wit, very keen on concentrating power on himself, but at the same time with a benevolent and kind personality. His youthful education as master of a religious order made him an unusually learned king for the Middle Ages. His love for knowledge and culture was passed to his sons, often collectively referred to by Portuguese historians as the "illustrious generation" (Ínclita Geração): Edward, the future king, was a poet and a writer; Peter, the duke of Coimbra, was one of the most learned princes of his time; and Prince Henry the Navigator, the duke of Viseu, invested heavily in science and the development of nautical pursuits. In 1430, John's only surviving daughter, Isabella, married Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and enjoyed an extremely refined court culture in his lands; she was the mother of Charles the Bold.

· John II of Aragon (1398–1479), King of Aragon and, through his wife, King of Navarre
John II the Faithless, also known as the Great (29 June 1398 – 20 January 1479) was the King of Aragon from 1458 until 1479, and jure uxoris King of Navarre from 1425 until his death. He was the son of Ferdinand I
والده
) Ferdinand I (Spanish: Fernando I; 27 November 1380 – 2 April 1416(.
and his wife Eleanor of Alburquerque.
والدته
) Eleanor, 2nd Countess of Alburquerque (1374–16 December 1435)
John is regarded as one of the most memorable and most unscrupulous kings of the 15th century.
In his youth he was one of the infantes (princes) of Aragon who took part in the dissensions of Castile during the minority and reign of John II. Till middle life he was also lieutenant-general in Aragon for his brother and predecessor Alfonso V, whose reign was mainly spent in Italy. In his old age he was engaged in incessant conflicts with his Aragonese and Catalan subjects, with Louis XI of France, and in preparing the way for the marriage of his son Ferdinand with Isabella I of Castile which brought about the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, that was to create the Kingdom of Spain. His trouble with his subjects were closely connected with the tragic dissension in his own family.
John was first married to Blanche I of Navarre of the house of Évreux. By right of Blanche he became king of Navarre, and on her death in 1441 he was left in possession of the kingdom for his lifetime. But a son, Charles, given the title "Prince of Viana" as heir of Navarre, had been born of the marriage. John quickly came to regard his son with jealousy. After his second marriage, to Juana Enríquez, this grew into absolute hatred and was encouraged by Juana. John tried to deprive his son of his constitutional right to act as lieutenant-general of Aragon during his father's absence. Charles's cause was taken up by the Aragonese, and the king's attempt to make his second wife lieutenant-general was set aside.
There followed the long Navarrese Civil War, with alternations of success and defeat, ending only with the death of the prince of Viana, perhaps by poison given him by his stepmother, in 1461. The Catalans, who had adopted the cause of Charles and who had grievances of their own, called in a succession of foreign pretenders in a War against John II. John spent his last years contending with these. He was forced to pawn Roussillon, his possession on the north-east of the Pyrenees, to King Louis XI of France, who refused to part with it.
In his old age John was blinded by cataracts, but recovered his eyesight by the operation of couching conducted by his physician Abiathar Crescas, a . The Catalan revolt was pacified in 1472, but John carried on a war, in which he was generally unfortunate, with his neighbor the French king till his death in 1479. He was succeeded by Ferdinand, his son by his second marriage, who was already married to Isabella I of Castile. With his death and son's accession to the throne of Aragon, the unification of Spain under one royal house began in earnest.

Justinian I ( /dʒʌˈstɪniən/); Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus Augustus, Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ἰουστινιανός; c. 482 – 13/14 November 565), commonly known as Justinian the Great, was Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the classical Roman Empire.
One of the most important figures of Late Antiquity and the last Roman Emperor to speak Latin as a first language,[1] Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and domain. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire".[2] This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire. His general Belisarius swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa, extending Roman control to the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic Kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the Empire after being under barbarian control for over half a century.
The prefectLiberius reclaimed most of southern Iberia, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million solidi.[3] During his reign Justinian also annexed Lazica, a region on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before.
A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia, which was to be the center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity for many centuries.
A devastating outbreak of bubonic plague (see Plague of Justinian) in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendor. The Empire entered a period of territorial decline not to be reversed until the ninth century.
Procopius provides the primary source for the history of Justinian's reign. The Syriac chronicle of John of Ephesus, which does not survive, was used as a source for later chronicles, contributing many additional details of value. Both historians became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress, Theodora.[4] Other sources include the histories of Agathias, Menander Protector, John Malalas, the Paschal Chronicle, the chronicles of Marcellinus Comes and Victor of Tunnuna.
Justinian is considered a saint amongst Orthodox Christians, and is also commemorated by some Lutheran Churches.[5]

Justinian was born in Tauresium[6] around 482. His Latin-speaking peasant family is believed to have been of Thraco-Roman or Illyro-Roman origins[
The cognomen Iustinianus which he took later is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin.
During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace, today in South East Serbia. His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin.
Justin, who was in the imperial guard (the Excubitors) before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople, and ensured the boy's education.
As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology and Roman history. Justinian served for some time with the Excubitors but the details of his early career are unknown.[15] Chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, tells of his appearance that he was short, fair skinned, curly haired, round faced and handsome. Another contemporary chronicler, Procopius, compares Justinian's appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander.[16]
When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new Emperor, with significant help from Justinian.[15] During Justin's reign (518–527), Justinian was the Emperor's close confidant. Justinian showed much ambition, and it has been thought that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate Emperor on 1 April 527, although there is no conclusive evidence for this.[17] As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler.[15] Justinian was appointed consul in 521, and later commander of the army of the east.[15][18] Upon Justin I's death on 1 August 527, Justinian became the sole sovereign.[15]
As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the Emperor who never sleeps" on account of his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amenable and easy to approach.[19] Justinian's family came from a lowly and provincial background, and therefore he had no power base in the traditional aristocracy of Constantinople. Instead, he surrounded himself with men and women of extraordinary talent, whom he selected not on the basis of aristocratic origin, but on the basis of merit.
Around 525 he married in Constantinople Theodora, who was by profession a courtesan about 20 years his junior. Justinian would have, in earlier times, been unable to marry her because of her class, but his uncle Emperor Justin I had passed a law allowing intermarriage between social classes.[20] Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire, and later emperors would follow Justinian's precedent in marrying outside the aristocratic class. The marriage caused a scandal, but Theodora would prove to be very intelligent, "street smart", a good judge of character and Justinian's greatest supporter. Other talented individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser; Peter the Patrician, the diplomat and longtime head of the palace bureaucracy; his finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented general Belisarius.
Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he almost lost his throne during the Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the Emperor's life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as 562.[21]
Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered. Theodora died in 548, perhaps of cancer,[22] at a relatively young age; Justinian outlived her by almost twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine,[23] became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. When he died, on the night of November 13–14 of the year 565, he left no children. He was succeeded by Justin II, who was the son of his sister Vigilantia, and married to Sophia, the niece of Empress Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles.

47 – كاميهاميها الاول ( ملك هاوي )

Although there is some debate as to the precise year of his birth, Hawaiian legends claimed that a great king would one day unite the islands, and that the sign of his birth would be a comet. Halley's comet was visible from Hawaiʻi in 1758 and it is likely Kamehameha was born shortly after its appearance. Other accounts state that he was born in November 1737.
He was known as Paiʻea, which means "hard-shelled crab". His father by blood was Keōua. His mother was Chiefess Kekuʻiapoiwa of the Kohala district on the island of Hawaiʻi.
His father Keōua was the grandson of Keaweikekahialiʻiokamoku, who had once ruled a large portion of the island of Hawaiʻi. When Keaweikekahialiʻiokamoku died, war broke out over succession between his sons, Kalani Kama Keʻeaumoku Nui and Kalaninuiʻamamao, and a rival chief, Alapaʻinuiakauaua. Alapaʻi emerged victorious over the two brothers, and their orphan sons (including Kamehameha's father) were absorbed into his clan. Other accounts indicate that he was son of the king of Maui Kahekili II. This occurrence is common in ancient Hawaiian society and such children were called aliʻi poʻolu, double-headed chiefs, with two fathers.
When Kamehameha (Paiʻea) was born, Alapaʻi ordered the child killed. One of his priests (kahuna) had warned him that a fiery light in the sky would signal the birth of a "killer of chiefs". Alapaʻi, nervous at the thought of this child eventually usurping his rule, decided to take no chances. Paiʻea's parents, however, had anticipated this. As soon as he was born, he was given into the care of Naeʻole, another noble from Kohala, and disappeared from sight. Naeʻole raised Paiʻea for the first few years of his life. Five years after his birth, Alapaʻi, perhaps remorseful of his actions, invited the child back to live with his family. There under the guidance of his kumu (teacher), Kekuhaupiʻo, he learned the ways of court diplomacy and war.
His father, thought to have been poisoned or prayed to death by Alapaʻi, died a few years later. Kekuhaupiʻo remained a faithful and trusted advisor to Paiʻea until the accidental death of the loyal kahu during a sham battle.
Another story says the name Paiʻea was given to Kamehameha after he first distinguished himself as a warrior in a battles between Maui and Hawaiʻi island in 1775–1779.[2]
Paiʻea is said to have had a dour disposition, and acquired the name he is best known for today: Ka mehameha, from the Hawaiian language for "the lonely one".[3]

When Alapaʻi died, his position was succeeded by his son Keaweaʻopala. Kalaniʻōpuʻu, Alapaʻi's great-nephew, challenged his rule, and was backed by his nephew Kamehameha. In fierce fighting at Kealakekua Bay, Keaweaʻopala was slain and Kalaniʻōpuʻu claimed victory. For his loyal service to his uncle, Kamehameha was made Kalaniʻōpuʻu's aide.
In 1779, Kamehameha again traveled with Kalaniʻōpuʻu to Kealakekua Bay. This time he, among other young chiefs accompanying their senior chief, met with Captain James Cook. Cook was perhaps mistaken by some Native Hawaiians to be Lono, the Hawaiian god of fertility. Cook's ship was the HMS Resolution ; Kamehameha may have stayed on board at least one night. It was Kamehameha's first contact with non-Hawaiians.

Raised in the royal court of his uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻ, Kamehameha achieved prominence in 1782, upon Kalaniʻōpuʻu's death. While the kingship was inherited by Kalaniʻōpuʻu's son Kiwalaʻo, Kamehameha was given a prominent religious position, guardianship of the Hawaiian god of war, Kūkaʻilimoku, as well as the district of Waipiʻo valley. There was already bad blood between the two cousins, caused when Kamehameha presented a slain aliʻi's body to the gods instead of to Kiwalaʻo. When a group of chiefs from the Kona district offered to back Kamehameha against Kiwalaʻo, he accepted eagerly. The five Kona chiefs supporting Kamehameha were: Keʻeaumoku Pāpaʻiahiahi (Kamehameha's father-in-law), Keaweaheulu Kaluaʻapana (Kamehameha's uncle), Kekūhaupiʻo (Kamehameha's warrior teacher), Kameʻeiamoku and Kamanawa (twin uncles of Kamehameha). Kiwalaʻo was soon defeated in the battle of Mokuʻohai, and Kamehameha took control of the districts of Kohala, Kona, and Hamakua on the island of Hawaiiʻi.[4]
Kamehameha then moved against the district of Puna in 1790 deposing Chief Keawemaʻuhili. Keōua Kuahuʻula, exiled to his home in Kaʻū, took advantage of Kamehameha's absence and led an uprising. When Kamehameha returned with his army to put down the rebellion, Keōua fled past the Kilauea volcano, which erupted and killed nearly a third of his warriors from poisonous gas.[5]
Questioning a kahuna on how best to go about securing the rest of the island, Kamehameha resolved to construct a temple (heiau) to Kūkaʻilimoku, as well as lay an aliʻi's body on it.
When the Puʻukoholā Heiau was completed in 1791, Kamehameha invited Keōua to meet with him. Keōua may have been dispirited by his recent losses. He may have mutilated himself before landing so as to make himself an imperfect sacrificial victim. As he stepped on shore, one of Kamehameha's chiefs threw a spear at him. By some accounts he dodged it, but was then cut down by musket fire. Caught by surprise, Keōua's bodyguards were killed. With Keōua dead, and his supporters captured or slain, Kamehameha became King of all Hawaiʻi island.

Kanishka was a Kushan of probable Yuezhi ethnicity. He used an Eastern Iranian, Indo-European language known as Bactrian (called "αρια," i. e. "Aryan" in the Rabatak inscription), which appears in Greek script in his inscriptions, though it is not certain what language the Kushans originally spoke; possibly some form of Tocharian - a "centum" Indo-European language. The "Aryan" language of the inscription was a "satem" Middle Iranian language,[1] possibly the one spoken in "Arya" or "Ariana" (the region around modern Herat) and was, therefore, quite possibly unrelated to the original language of the Kushans (or the Yuezhi), but adopted by them to facilitate communication with local people.
Kanishka was the successor of Vima Kadphises, as demonstrated by an impressive genealogy of the Kushan kings, known as the Rabatak inscription.[2][3] The connection of Kanishka with other Kushan rulers is described in the Rabatak inscription as Kanishka makes the list of the kings who ruled up to his time: Kujula Kadphises as his great-grandfather, Vima Taktu as his grandfather, Vima Kadphises as his father, and himself Kanishka:
"... for King Kujula Kadphises (his) great grandfather, and for King Vima Taktu (his) grandfather, and for King Vima Kadphises (his) father, and *also for himself, King Kanishka"[4]
A number of legends about Kanishka, a great patron of Buddhism, were preserved in Buddhist religious traditions. Along with the Indian kings Ashoka and Harshavardhana, and the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Milinda), he is considered by Buddhists to have been one of the greatest Buddhist kings.

Kanishka's empire was certainly vast. It extended from southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, north of the Amu Darya (Oxus) in the north west to Northern India, as far as Mathura in the south east (the Rabatak inscription even claims he held Pataliputra and Sri Champa), and his territory also included Kashmir, where there was a town Kanishkapur, named after him not far from the Baramula Pass and which still contains the base of a large stupa.
Knowledge of his hold over Central Asia is less well established. The Book of the Later Han, Hou Hanshu, states that general Ban Chao fought battles near Khotan with a Kushan army of 70,000 men led by an otherwise unknown Kushan viceroy named Xie (Chinese: 謝) in 90 CE. Though Ban Chao claimed to be victorious, forcing the Kushans to retreat by use of a scorched-earth policy, the region fell to Kushan forces in the early 2nd century.[8] As a result, for a period (until the Chinese regained control c. 127 CE)[9] the territory of the Kushans extended for a short period as far as Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkand, which were Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. Several coins of Kanishka have been found in the Tarim Basin.
Controlling both the land (the Silk Road) and sea trade routes between South Asia and Rome seems to have been one of Kanishka's chief imperial goals.

Obverse: Kanishka standing, clad in heavy Kushan coat and long boots, flames emanating from shoulders, holding a standard in his left hand, and making a sacrifice over an altar. Greek legend ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗϷΚΟΥ "[coin] of Kanishka, king of kings".
Reverse: Standing Helios in Hellenistic style, forming a benediction gesture with the right hand. Legend in Greek script: ΗΛΙΟΣ Helios. Kanishka monogram (tamgha) to the left.
Kanishka's coins portray images of Indo-Aryan, Greek, Iranian and even Sumero-Elamite divinities, demonstrating the religious syncretism in his beliefs. Kanishka's coins from the beginning of his reign bear legends in Greek language and script and depict Greek divinities. Later coins bear legends in Bactrian, the Iranian language that the Kushans evidently spoke, and Greek divinities were replaced by corresponding Iranic ones. All of Kanishka's coins - even ones with a legend in the Bactrian language - were written in a modified Greek script that had one additional glyph (Ϸ) to represent /š/ (sh), as in the word 'Kushan' and 'Kanishka'.
On his coins, the king is typically depicted as a bearded man in a long coat and trousers gathered at the ankle, with flames emanating from his shoulders. He wears large rounded boots, and is armed with a long sword similar to a scimitar as well as a lance. He is frequently seen to be making a sacrifice on a small altar. The lower half of a lifesize limestone relief of Kanishka similarly attired, with a stiff embroidered surplice beneath his coat and spurs attached to his boots under the light gathered folds of his trousers, survived in the Kabul Museum until it was destroyed by the Taliban.[10]

A few coins at the beginning of his reign have a legend in the Greek language and script: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗϷΚΟΥ, basileus basileon kaneshkou "[coin] of Kanishka, king of kings."
Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on these early coins:
· ΗΛΙΟΣ (ēlios, Hēlios), ΗΦΑΗΣΤΟΣ (ēphaēstos, Hephaistos), ΣΑΛΗΝΗ (salēnē, Selene), ΑΝΗΜΟΣ (anēmos, Anemos)
The inscriptions in Greek are full of spelling and syntactical errors.

Kvirike III the Great (Georgian: კვირიკე III დიდი, Kvirike III Didi) (died 1029) was a ruler of Kakheti in eastern Georgia from 1010 (effectively from 1014) to 1029.
He succeeded upon the death of his father David as a prince and chorepiscopus of Kakheti, but King Bagrat III of Georgia captured him and conquered Kakheti. Following Bagrat’s death in 1014, Kvirike was able to recover the crown, took control of the neighboring region of Hereti and declared himself King of Kakheti and Hereti. Under Kvirike III, the kingdom experienced a period of political power and prosperity. In 1027, Kvirike joined the combined armies of Bagrat IV of Georgia led by Liparit Orbeliani and Ivane Abazasdze, Emir Jaffar of Tiflis, and the Armenian King David I of Lorri against the Shaddadid emir of Arran, Fadhl II, who was decisively defeated at the Eklez River. Around the same time, Kvirike III annihilated an invasion force led by the Alan king Urdure who had crossed the Caucasus Mountains into Kakheti only to be killed in a pitched battle. At the zenith of his power and prestige, Kvirike was assassinated while hunting in 1029. According to the Georgian historian Vakhushti, this was done by Kvirike's Alan slave who sought to avenge for the death of King Urdure. On Kvirike’s death, Kakheti was temporarily annexed to the Kingdom of Georgia.

Kublai Khan (/ˈkuːbləˈkɑːn/; Mongolian: Хубилай хаан, Xubilaĭ xaan; Middle Mongolian: Qubilai Qaγan, "King Qubilai"; September 23, 1215 – February 18, 1294), born Kublai (Mongolian: Хубилай, Xubilaĭ; Middle Mongolian: Qubilai; Chinese: 忽必烈; pinyin: Hūbìliè; also spelled Khubilai) and also known by the temple name Shizu (Chinese: 元世祖; pinyin: Yuán Shìzǔ; Wade–Giles: Yüan Shih-tsu), was the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China.
As the second son of Tolui
) Tolui, (Classic Mongolian: Toluy, Tului, (Mongolian: Тулуй хаан), Tolui Khan (meaning the Khan Tolui)) (1192–1232(
and Sorghaghtani Beki
) Sorghaghtani Beki or Bekhi (Bek(h)i is a title), also written Sorkaktani, Sorkhokhtani, Sorkhogtani, Siyurkuktiti; traditional Chinese: simplified Chinese:pinyin: (Posthumous name: traditional Chinese: simplified Chinese: pinyin: Xiǎn yì zhuāng shèng huáng hòu) (c. 1198 – 1252),
and a grandson of Genghis Khan, he claimed the title of Khagan of the Ikh Mongol Uls (Mongol Empire) in 1260 after the death of his older brother Möngke in the previous year, though his younger brother Ariq Böke was also given this title in the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. He eventually won the battle against Ariq Böke in 1264, and the succession war essentially marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.[3] Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia (which was the Yuan Dynasty, or the Mongol Dynasty) after the victory over Ariq Böke, though his influence still remained in the Ilkhanate, and to a far lesser degree, in the Golden Horde, in the western parts of the Mongol Empire.[4][5][6] If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific to the Urals, from Siberia to modern day Afghanistan – one fifth of the world's inhabited land area.[7]
In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan Dynasty, which at that time ruled over present-day Mongolia and China, and some adjacent areas, and assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Yuan forces had successfully annihilated the last resistance of the Southern Song Dynasty, and Kublai thus became the first non-Chinese Emperor who conquered all of China. He was also the only Mongol khan after 1260 to win new great conquests.[8]
The summer garden of Kublai Khan at Xanadu is the subject of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's 1797 poem Kubla Khan. Coleridge's work and Marco Polo's book brought Kublai and his achievements to the attention of a widespread audience, and today Kublai is a well-known historical figure.

Kublai (b. 23 Sep. 1215) was the second son of Tolui and Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose as her son's nurse a BuddhistTangut woman whom Kublai later honored highly.
On his way back home after the conquest of Khwarizmian Empire, Genghis Khan performed the ceremony on his grandsons Mongke and Kublai after their first hunting in 1224 near the Ili River.[9] Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. His grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger following the Mongol tradition.
After the Mongol-Jin War, in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei Province (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own and 10,000 households there. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused the flight of large numbers of Chinese peasants, which in turn led to a decline in tax revenues. Kublai quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, people returned to their old towers.
The most prominent, and arguably influential component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and strong attraction to contemporary Chinese culture. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, Zhenjin (True Gold in Chinese language), who was born in 1243.[10] Haiyun also introduced Kublai the former Taoist and now Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet and mathematician, and became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to run his temple in modern Beijing.[11] Kublai soon added the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turk.