أعظم الناس:ما سر عظمتهم!!..وهل لليتم دور في العظمة؟ - الصفحة 10

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31- جنكيزخان

· Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire

جنكيز خان بالمنغولية: Чингис Хаан، (تكتب الصينية: 成吉思汗 وهجاؤها بطريقة پن ينpinyin هو: cheng1 ji1 si1 kang1)، أو تيموجن (بالصينية: 鐵木真 ، وهجاؤها بطريقة پن ينpinyin هو: Temüjin، عاش ما بين عامي 1165 و1227 ميلادية[
وهو مؤسس وخان وخاقان وإمبراطور الإمبراطورية المغولية والتي اعتبرت أضخم إمبراطورية في التاريخ ‏(en)‏ ككتلة واحدة بعد وفاته. برز جنكيز خان بعد توحيده عدة قبائل رحل لشمال شرق آسيا ‏(en)‏. فبعد إنشائه إمبراطورية المغول وتسميته "بجنكيز خان" بدأ بحملاته العسكرية ‏(en)‏ فهاجم خانات قراخيطان ‏(en)‏والقوقاز والدولة الخوارزمية زيا الغربية ‏(en)‏وإمبراطورية جين ‏(en)‏. وفي نهاية حياته كانت إمبراطوريته قد احتلت جزءا ضخما من أواسط آسيا والصين.
"جنكيزخان" كلمة تعني: قاهر العالم، أو ملك ملوك العالم، أو القوي.. حسب الترجمات المختلفة للغة المنغولية.. واسمه الأصلي "تيموجين".. وكان رجلاً سفاكًا للدماء.. وكان كذلك قائدًا عسكريًّا شديد البأس.. وكانت له القدرة على تجميع الناس حوله.. وبدأ في التوسع تدريجيًّا في المناطق المحيطة به، وسرعان ما اتسعت مملكته حتى بلغت حدودها من كوريا شرقًا إلى حدود الدولة الخوارزمية الإسلامية غربًا، ومن سهول سيبريا شمالاً إلى بحر الصين جنوبًا.. أي أنها كانت تضم من دول العالم حاليًا: (الصين ومنغوليا وفيتنام وكوريا وتايلاند وأجزاء من سيبيريا.. إلى جانب مملكة لاوس وميانمار ونيبال وبوتان)!!
وقبل أن يتوفى جنكيز خان اوصى أن يكون خليفته هو أوقطاي خان وقسم امبراطوريته إلى خانات بين أبنائه واحفاده. وقد توفي سنة 1227 بعد أن هزم التانجوت ‏(en)‏ وقد دفن في قبر مجهول ‏(en)‏ لايعرف بالضبط أين مكانه في منغوليا. وبدأ اسلافه بتوسيع إمبراطوريتهم خلال أرجاء أوراسيا من خلال احتلال و/أو إنشاء ممالك تابعة لهم داخل الصين الحالية وكوريا والقوقاز وممالك آسيا الوسطى، وأجزاء ضخمة من أوروبا الشرقية والشرق الأوسط.
إلى جانب إنجازاته العسكرية الضخمة، فجنكيز خان جعل الامبراطورية المغولية تتطور في وسائل أخرى. حيث انه أصدر مرسوم باعتماد الأبجدية الأويغورية كنظام الكتابة في الامبراطورية المغولية. لقد شجع أيضا التسامح الديني داخل إمبراطوريته، وأنشأ امبراطورية موحدة من قبائل شمال شرق آسيا الرحل. ويكن له المغول الحاليين شديد الاحترام ويعتبرونه الأب المؤسس لدولة منغوليا.

بداية حياته

نسبه

يتصل نسب تيموجين مباشرة مع جده خابول خان ‏(en)‏وأمباغاي ‏(en)‏، وأخيه كوتولا خان ‏(en)‏ الذين تزعموا الإتحاد المنغولي ‏(en)‏ فعندما انتقل دعم سلالة جين الصينية من المغول إلى التتار سنة 1161 وحطموا خابول خان[3]. فعندئذ برز والد جنكيز واسمه يسوغي ‏(en)‏ (زعيم عشيرة بورجيجين ‏(en)‏ التي هي الأسرة الحاكمة للمغول وابن أخ أمباغاي وكوتولا خان) ولكن هذا المنصب ينازعه عليه أسرة تاي تشيود ‏(en)‏ المنافسة، الذين ينحدرون مباشرة من أمباغاي، فعندما قوي نفوذ التتار بعد سنة 1161، حول حكام الأسرة جين دعمهم إلى قبيلة الكراييت ‏(en)‏

نشأته

خارطة سياسية للعالم قبل غزوات جنكيز خان.

كانت أسرة "لياو" القياتيّة تحكم منغوليا، منشوريا، وأجزاء من شمال الصين، منذ القرن العاشر الميلادي، قبل بروز نجم "أسرة جين" التي أسسها الشعب الشوجيني. وفي عام 1125 أطاحت أسرة جين بأسرة لياو، وحاولت أن تسيطر على المقاطعات التي كانت الأخيرة تحكمها، إلا أن المغول، تحت قيادة "قابول خان"، الجد الأكبر لتيموجين (جنكيز خان)، استطاعوا أن يردوا الغزاة على أعقابهم ويمنعوهم من السيطرة على تلك الأراضي، وكان ذلك في أوائل القرن الثاني عشر. أدّت هذه الأحداث إلى بروز منافسة حادة بين المغول والتتار في نهاية المطاف، وكان ملوك أسرة جين الذهبيون يدعمون التتار ويشجعونهم، كي يضمنوا بقاء قبائل المغول الرحّل ضعيفة. وفي ذلك العهد، كان هناك خمسة خانات (قبائل) قوية تقطن الهضبة المنغوليّة، ومنها المغول والتتار.
يُعتَقَد ان جنكيز خان ولد - حين ولادته سمى باسم تيموجين - بمعنى(القوي الصلب) ما بين عامي 1162 و1167، وقد كان الابن البكر ليسوگيه Yesügei شيخ قبيلة كياد Kiyad وتكتب مفردا ب كيان Kiyan. وتسمى عائلة يسوگيه Yesügei بـ بورجيگن Borjigin ومفردها هو بورجيگيد Borjigid.
وعُرف والد تيموجين بالشدة والبأس حيث كانت تخشاه القبائل الأخرى، وقد سمى ابنه "تيموجين" بهذا الاسم تيمنًا بمولده في يوم انتصاره على إحدى القبائل التي كان يتنازع معها، وتمكنه من القضاء على زعيمهم الذي كان يحمل هذا الاسم.
ولم تطل الحياة بأبيه، فقد قتل على يد التتار المجاورين لهم في عام 1175 ميلادية، تاركًا حملا ثقيلا ومسئولية جسيمة لـ"تيموجين" الابن الأكبر الذي كان صغيراً لم يتجاوز الثالثة عشرة من عمره، وما كان ليقوى على حمل تبعات قبيلة كبيرة مثل "كياد"، فانفض عنه حلفاء أبيه، وانصرف عنه الأنصار والأتباع، واستغلت قبيلته صغر سنه فرفضت الدخول في طاعته، على الرغم من كونه الوريث الشرعي لرئاسة قبيلته، والتفَّت حول زعيم آخر، وفقدت أسرته الجاه والسلطان، وهامت في الأرض تعيش حياة قاسية، وتذوق مرارة الجوع والفقر والحرمان، بعد ذلك أصبح مطاردا هو وعائلته، فتنقلوا من مكان إلى آخر حتى لا يتم القبض عليهم.
وفي حوالي العشرين من عمره، زار تيموجن زوجته المستقبلية بورته Börte واستلم معطفا السمور الأسود من قبيلتها. وكان ذلك الأساس لثروته المتزايدة.

توحيد القبائل وتأسيس الدولة

تمكن تيموجين، ابن أحد الزعماء المغول والذي عانى من طفولة صعبة، تمكن ببراعة سياسية وقبضة عسكرية حديدية من توحيد قبائل منغولية - تركية رحل كانت بالسابق شديدة التنافس فيما بينها، وبمساعدة حليفه، الزعيم من القبيلة الكيراتيّة، وانغ خان، وصديق طفولته المقرّب، "جاموقا" وأخوه في الدم من عشيرة جادران، تمكن من التغلب على قبائل الميرغيديون—الذين كانوا قد اختطفوا زوجته "بورته"—بالإضافة للنايميون والتتار.
منع تيموجين جنوده من النهب والسلب والاغتصاب دون إذنه، وقام بتوزيع الغنائم الحربية على المحاربين وعائلاتهم بدلا من الأرستقراطيين،[4] وبهذا حصل على لقب "خان"، بمعنى "السيد"—إلا أن أعمامه كانوا أيضا ورثة شرعيين للعرش، وقد أدى هذا الأمر إلى حصول عدد من النزاعات بين قوّاده ومساعديه، واستغل أعمامه هذا الأمر ليقنعوا "جاموقا" والكيراتيين بالتخلي عنه لصالح أرستقراطيين أخرىن، حيث ادعوا أن تيموجين ليس سوى مغتصب للعرش. كان لمركز تيموجين القوي وسمعته المهيبة بين المغول وغيرهم من الرحّل، أثر كبير على نخبة الكيراتيين، حيث خشوا جميعهم توسعه المرتقب وسلطته المتنامية، ولهذا انقلب عليه جميع أعمامه وأبناؤهم، بالإضافة لغيرهم من رؤساء العشائر، وبالتالي تقلّص عدد قواته بشكل كبير وكاد أن يُهزم في حرب تلت هذه الفترة، لولا أن انضم إليه بعض القبائل الأخرى الموالية له. قام المغول، في الفترة الممتدة بين عاميّ 1203 و1205، بتدمير كل القبائل العاصية المتبقية، وضمها تحت حكم تيموجين، الذي توّج في العام التالي، أي 1206 "خان" الإمبراطورية المغولية، في "قوريلتاي" (مجلس المغول العام) وخلع على نفسه لقب "جنكيز خان"، الذي يعني على الأرجح "السيد الكبير" أو "الحاكم الأعظم"، بدلا من الألقاب القبلية القديمة مثل "غور خان" أو "تايانغ خان". يُعد المؤرخين هذا الحادث بداية عهد الإمبراطورية المغولية تحت حكم جنكيز خان.
قام جنكيز خان بتعيين أصدقائه المقربين قوادا في جيشه وحرسه الشخصي والمنزلي، كما قام بتقسيم قواته وفق الترتيب العشري، إلى وحدات تتألف من فرق، تحوي كل فرقة منها عدد محدد من الأشخاص، فكانت وحدة الأربان تتألف من فرق تحوي 10 أشخاص في كل منها، وحدة الياغون تتألف كل فرقة منها من 100 شخص، وحدة المنغان من 1000 شخص، ووحدة التومين من 10,000 شخص، كما تمّ تأسيس فرقة الحرس الإمبراطوري وتقسيمها إلى قسمين: الحرس النهاريون والحرس الليليون.[5] وكان جنكيز خان يُكافئ أولئك الذين يظهرون له الإخلاص والولاء ويضعهم في مراكز عليا، وكان معظم هؤلاء يأتون من عشائر صغيرة قليلة الأهمية والمقدار أمام العشائر الأخرى. يُعرف أن الوحدات العسكرية الخاصة بأفراد عائلة جنكيز خان كانت قليلة بالنسبة للوحدات التي سلّمها لرفاقه المقربين. أعلن الأخير في وقت لاحق قانونا جديدا للإمبراطورية هو "الياسا" أو "إيخ زاساغ"، ودوّن فيه كل ما يرتبط بالحياة اليومية والعلاقات السياسية للرحّل في ذلك الوقت، ومثال ذلك: منع صيد الحيوانات في موسم تزاوجها، بيع النساء، سرقة ممتلكات الغير، عدم الاغتسال في النهر وقت العاصفه، بالإضافة للقتال بين المغول،[6] وقام جنكيز خان بتعيين أخاه المتبنى "شيغي خوتهوغ" بمنصب قاضي القضاة،وأمره بالاحتفاظ بسجل عن الدعاوى المرفوعة والمشاكل التي تقع. وبالإضافة للأمور الأسرية، الغذائية، والعسكرية، أطلق جنكيز خان حرية المعتقد ودعم التجارة الداخلية والخارجية، وكان يعفي الفقراء ورجال الدين من الضرائب المفروضة عليهم وعلى ممتلكاتهم.[7] ولهذه الأسباب، انضم الكثير من المسلمين، البوذيين، والمسيحيين، من منشوريا، شمال الصين، الهند، وبلاد فارس، طوعا إلى إمبراطورية جنكيز خان، قبل أن يشرع بفتوحاته الخارجية بوقت طويل. اعتنق هذا الخان الأبجدية الأويغورية، التي شكلت فيما بعد أساس الأبجدية المنغولية، وأمر المعلّم الأويغوري "تاتاتوانغا"، الذي كان يعمل في خدمة خان النايميين، بتعليم أبنائه.[8]

الحملات العسكرية خلال حكم جنكيز خان.

سرعان ما وقع جنكيز خان، بعد بروز إمبراطوريته كقوى عظمى، في نزاع مع أسرة جين الشوجينية، وأسرة زيا الغربية التغوتيّة، حكّام شمال الصين، فقام بغزو ممالك الصين الشمالية هذه بسرعة وضمها إليه، ثم حصلت بعض الاستفزازات فيما بينه وبين الدولة الخوارزمية القوية، على الحدود الغربية، لامبراطوريته، مما حدا بالخان للاتجاه غربا صوب آسيا الوسطى حيث احتل خوارزم ودمرها واحتل بلاد ماوراء النهر وفارس، بعد ذلك هاجم كييف الروسية والقوقاز وضمهم إلى ملكه. قبل مماته وزع تركته الإمبراطورية بين أبنائه وحسب الأعراف يبقى الحكم للأسرة المالكة والتي هي من سلالته فقط.
وواصل تيموجين خطته في التوسع على حساب جيرانه، فبسط سيطرته على منطقة شاسعة من إقليم منغوليا، تمتد حتى صحراء جوبي، حيث مضارب عدد كبير من قبائل التتار، ثم دخل في صراع مع حليفه رئيس قبيلة الكراييت، وكانت العلاقات قد ساءت بينهما بسبب الدسائس والوشايات، وتوجس "أونك خان" زعيم الكراييت من تنامي قوة تيموجين وازدياد نفوذه؛ فانقلب حلفاء الأمس إلى أعداء وخصوم، واحتكما إلى السيف، وكان الظفر في صالح تيموجين سنة (600هـ= 1203م)، فاستولى على عاصمته "قره قورم" وجعلها قاعدة لملكه، وأصبح تيموجين بعد انتصاره أقوى شخصية مغولية، فنودي به خاقانا، وعُرف باسم "جنكيز خان"؛ أي إمبراطور العالم.
وبعد ذلك قضى ثلاث سنوات عُني فيها بتوطيد سلطانه، والسيطرة على المناطق التي يسكنها المغول، حتى تمكن من توحيد منغوليا بأكملها تحت سلطانه، ودخل في طاعته الأويغوريون.

02-20-2012, 03:11 PM

المشاركة 92

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا

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تابع،،،،
31- جنكيزخان

مقولاته المشهورة

"إنه ليس كافيا أن أكون ناجحا-- كل الآخرين يجب أن تفشل".
"بمعونة السماء لقد فتحت لكم امبراطورية عظيمة. لكن حياتي كانت قصيرة للغاية لتحقيق غزو العالم. هذه المهمة تركت لكم "
"أنا عقاب الرب... إذا لم ترتكبو أكبر الخطاية، لامالله يبعث عقوبة مثلي عليكم".
"أنا على استعداد بالتضحية بنصف شعب المغول لكي يستقيم النصف الثاني".
سعادتنا الكبرى هو ان تشتت عدوك، من اجل دفعه قبلك، لرؤية المدن تحولت إلى رماد، لمعرفة أولئك الذين يحبونه غارقين في البكاء، وتضعه في حضن زوجاته وبناته".
اذا جسدي مات، اسمحوا لجسدي ان يموت، ولكن لا تدع بلدي تموت.

أحداث مهمة

1187؟ حمل لقب جنكيز خان (الملك العالمي)
1198 القوات المشتركة مع Toghril، وهو حليف لوالده الراحل، واسرة جين (شين) في شمال الصين لمعركة التتار.
1200-1202 يهزم اتحاد كونفدرالي من القوات التي يقودها Jamuka، صديق الطفولة، وكثير من أتباع Jamuka بعدها تحالفوا مع جنكيز خان.
1202 هزم قوات التتار وأمر بالإعدامات الجماعية التي دمرت التتار
1206 أعلن الحاكم لجميع المغول من قبل مَجْلِس أمراء المغول بعد وفاة Jamuka
1211 حصار لاسرة جين في شمال الصين، والسيطرة عليها في غضون سنة
1214 التوصل إلى اتفاق سلام مع أسرة جين، ولكن في العام التالي سلب رؤوس أموالها واضطر الامبراطور إلى الفرار
1216-1221توسع إمبراطورية المغول غربا إلى آسيا الوسطى، وتمتد هذه المنطقة من السيطرة على ما يسمى الآن إيران، وأفغانستان، وجنوب روسيا
1221 هزم جلال الدين على ضفاف نهر السند، وتوسيع الامبراطورية المنغولية إلى أقصى حد الذي تم التوصل إليه خلال حياته
1226 هزم قوات جين العائدة على هوانغ (النهر الأصفر)، لكنه توفي في العام التالي، بينما واصل التخطيط للهجوم

وفاته

الإمبراطورية عند موت جنكيز خان.

عند وفاة جنكيز خان عام 1227 كانت الإمبراطورية المغولية تمتد من المحيط الهادئ حتى بحر قزوين، أي أنها كانت تبلغ في حجمها ضعفي حجم الإمبراطورية الرومانية ودول الخلافة الإسلامية.[9] ثم توسعت لأكثر من هذا في العهود التي تلت، تحت حكم من أتى من ذريّة الأخير.

جنكيز خان في ذاكرة التاريخ

سيظل جنكيز خان عبقريّة عسكرية ككبار الفاتحين مثل خالد بن الوليد والإسكندر الأكبر وتحتمس الثالث إلا أنه يختلف عنهم بسعيه في الأرض فسادًا ودمارًا في كل فتوحاته؛ حيث أسس إمبراطورية امتدت في عهد سلالته من أوكرانيا إلى كوريا. كما أسّس أحفاده سلالات ملكية في الصين وبلاد فارس وروسيا، ومن سلالات أحفاده ملوك حكموا في آسيا الوسطى لقرون عدة.
يحدّثنا المؤرخ الألماني (بيرتولد شبولر) عن شخصية جنكيز خان فيقول في صفحة (27):
"إن صفات جنكيز خان الفائقة وشخصيته الفذّة لا تظهر في انتصاراته العسكرية فحسب؛ بل في ميادين أخرى ليست أقل أهمية إذ لا يسعنا إلا أن ننظر بإكبار وإعجاب إلى منجزاته كمشرّع قانوني، ومنظّم للأمّة المغولية."

02-20-2012, 03:12 PM

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تابع،،،،
31- جنكيزخان

Genghis Khan (/ˈ ɡ ɛ ŋ ɡ ɪ s ˈ k ɑː n / or /ˈ dʒ ɛ ŋ ɡ ɪ s ˈ k ɑː n /, Mongol: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ] ( listen); 1162? – August 1227), born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu (太祖), was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.
Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons.[7] He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories.[8] Mongol campaigns may have resulted in the deaths of 40 million people.[9]
Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and created a unified empire from the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia.[10]

Early life

Lineage

Temujin was related on his father's side to Khabul Khan, Ambaghai and Hotula Khan who had headed the Khamag Mongol confederation. When the Chinese Jin Dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan. Temujin's father, Yesukhei (leader of the Borjigin clan and nephew to Ambaghai and Hotula Khan), emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin switched their support from the Tatars to the Keraits.

Birth

Because of the lack of contemporary written records, there is very little factual information about the early life of Temujin. The few sources that provide insight into this period often conflict.
Temujin was born in 1162 or 1155 in Delüün Boldog near Burkhan Khaldun mountain and the Onon and Kherlen Rivers in modern-day Mongolia, not far from the current capital, Ulaanbaatar. The Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born with a blood clot grasped in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader.
He was the third-oldest son of his father Yesükhei, a Khamag Mongol's major chief of the Kiyad and an ally of Toghrul Khan of the Kerait tribe, and the oldest son of his mother Hoelun.
According to the Secret History, Temujin was named after a Tatar chieftain, Temujin-üge, whom his father had just captured. The name also suggests that they may have been descended from a family of blacksmiths (see section Name and title below).
Yesukhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the Olkhunut, the sub-lineage of the Onggirat tribe. Like other tribes, they were nomads. Because his father was a chieftain, as were his predecessors, Temüjin was of a noble background. This higher social standing made it easier to solicit help from and eventually consolidate the other Mongol tribes.]
No accurate portraits of Genghis exist today, and any surviving depictions are considered to be artistic interpretations. Persian historian Rashid-al-Din recorded in his "Chronicles" that the legendary "glittering" ancestor of Genghis was tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and green-eyed. Rashid al-Din also described the first meeting of Genghis and Kublai Khan, when Genghis was surprised to find that Kublai had not inherited his red hair. Also according to al-Din Genghis' Borjigid clan, had a legend involving their origins: it began as the result of an affair between Alan-ko and a stranger to her land, a glittering man who happened to have red hair and bluish-green eyes. Modern historian Paul Ratchnevsky has suggested in his Genghis biography that the "glittering man" may have been from the Kyrgyz people, who historically displayed these same characteristics.

Early life and family

Temujin had 3 brothers named Hasar, Hachiun, and Temüge, and one sister named Temülen, as well as two half-brothers named Behter and Belgutei.
Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temujin's early life was difficult. His father arranged a marriage for him, and at nine years of age, he was delivered by his father to the family of his future wife Börte, who was a member of the tribe Onggirat. Temujin was to live there in service to Dei Sechen, the head of the new household, until he reached the marriageable age of 12.
While heading home, his father ran into the neighboring Tatars, who had long been enemies of the Mongols, and he was subsequently poisoned by the food they offered.
Upon learning this, Temujin returned home to claim his father's position as chieftain of the tribe; however, his father's tribe refused to be led by a boy so young. They abandoned Hoelun and her children, leaving them without protection.
For the next several years, Hoelun and her children lived in poverty, surviving primarily on wild fruits and ox carcasses, marmots, and other small game hunted by Temujin and his brothers.
It was during one hunting excursion that 10-year-old Temujin killed his half-brother, Behter, during a fight which resulted from a dispute over hunting spoils.
This incident cemented his position. In another incident in 1182 he was captured in a raid and held prisoner by his father's former allies, the Tayichi'ud.
The Tayichi'ud enslaved Temujin (reportedly with a cangue), but with the help of a sympathetic watcher, the father of Chilaun (who later became a general of Genghis Khan), he was able to escape from the ger in the middle of the night by hiding in a river crevice.It was around this time that Jelme and Bo'orchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined forces with him. Temüjin's reputation also became widespread after his escape from the Tayichi'ud.
At this time, none of the tribal confederations of Mongolia were united politically, and arranged marriages were often used to solidify temporary alliances. Temujin grew up observing the tough political climate of Mongolia, which included tribal warfare, thievery, raids, corruption and continuing acts of revenge carried out between the various confederations, all compounded by interference from foreign forces such as the Chinese dynasties to the south. Temujin's mother Olen taught him many lessons about the unstable political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances.
As previously arranged by his father, Temujin married Börte of the Onggirat tribe when he was around 16 in order to cement alliances between their respective tribes. Börte had four sons, Jochi (1185–1226), Chagatai (1187—1241), Ögedei (1189—1241), and Tolui (1190–1232). Soon after Börte's marriage to Temujin, she was kidnapped by the Merkits, and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, Jamuha, and his protector, Toghrul Khan of the Kerait tribe. She gave birth to a son, Jochi, nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi, Börte would be his only empress, though Temujin did follow tradition by taking several morganatic wives.[17] Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from the succession. While the names of sons were documented, daughters were not. The names of at least six daughters are known, and while they played significant roles behind the scenes during his lifetime, no documents have survived that definitively provide the number or names of daughters born to the wives and consorts of Genghis Khan.
Temujin valued loyalty above all else and also valued brotherhood. Jamuha was one of Temujin's best friends growing up. But their friendship was tested later in life, when Temujin was fighting to become a khan. Jamuha said this to Temujin before he was killed, "What use is there in my becoming a companion to you? On the contrary, sworn brother, in the black night I would haunt your dreams, in the bright day I would trouble your heart. I would be the louse in your collar, I would become the splinter in your door-panel...as there was room for only one sun in the sky, there was room only for one Mongol lord."

02-20-2012, 08:37 PM

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32- جيرو الاول ( العظيم )

Gero I (c. 900 – 20 May 965), called the Great (Latin magnus), ruled an initially modest march centred on Merseburg, which he expanded into a vast territory named after him: the marca Geronis. During the mid-10th century, he was the leader of the Saxon Drang nach Osten.

Succession and early conflicts

Gero was the son of Count Thietmar, tutor of Henry I. He was appointed by King Otto I to succeed his brother, Siegfried, as count and margrave in the district fronting the Wends on the lower Saale in 937. His appointment frustrated Thankmar, the king's half-brother and Siegfried's cousin, and together with Eberhard of Franconia and Wichmann the Elder, he revolted against the king (938). Thankmar was dead within a year and his accomplices came to terms with Otto. Gero was kept in his march.
During the insurrection of his opponents, Gero had been prosecuting a losing war against the Slavs in 937–938. The losses his troops sustained could not be made up for by the produce of the land nor by tribute, since the Slavs refused to pay. As an important marcher lord, Gero's command included milites ad manum Geronis presidis conscripti, that is, a "military following," "warband of vassals or companions," or "specially chosen group of fighters" differentiated from the rest of the army (exercitus). These men formed the elite of Gero's troops.

Slav campaigns

In 939, an Obodrite attack left a German army routed and its margravial leader dead. Gero in revenge invited thirty Slav chieftains to a banquet whereat he killed all but one, who managed to escape by accident. In response, the Stodorani revolted against German overlordship and chased the Germans across the Elbe, but Gero was able to reverse this before Otto's arrival in Magdeburg later in the year. He subsequently bribed Tugumir, a baptised Slav prince, to betray his countryman and make his people subject to Germany. Soon after, the Obodrites and the Wilzes made submission.
In 954, while Gero was away, the Ukrani (or Ucri) revolted, but Gero returned with Conrad the Red and pacified them.
In 955, some Saxon counts rebelled and were banished by Duke Herman. They found refuge in Swetlastrana, a Slav town, location unknown, where the Obodrite chiefs Nakon and Stoinegin (or Stojgnev) resided. There Herman besieged them until an agreement was reached, but an ensuing skirmish spoiled the peace. The Obodrites, Wilzes, Chrepienyani, Redarii, and Dolenzi then banded together to oppose the coming army of Gero, the king, and Liudolf, Duke of Swabia. After negotiations failed because the Germans harsh terms, the Slavs were defeated in battle on the Drosa.[7]
Gero participated in general Saxon campaigns against the Slavs in 957, 959, and 960, as well as campaigning against the Wends and forcing Mieszko I of the Polans to pay tribute, grant land lien, and recognise German sovereignty during Otto's absence in Italy (962–963).[8] Lusatia, according to Widukind, was subjected "to the last degree of servitude."[9] Gero was responsible for subjecting the Liutizi and Milzini (or Milciani) and extending German suzerainty over the whole territory between the Elbe and the Bober.[2] In these lands, the native Slavic populace was reduced to serfdom and "tribute-paying peoples" were converted into "census-paying peasants."

Relationship with Church and family

Gero had a close relationship to Otto I. Otto was godfather to Gero's eldest son, Siegfried, and he granted Siegfried the villae of Egeln and Westeregeln in the Schwabengau in 941. As an act of devotion, Gero made a pilgrimage to Rome in 959 after Siegfried's death. In Siegfried's name, in 960, he also founded a Romanesque monastery in a forest named after him, Geronisrode (Gernrode), and left a large part of his great wealth to it on his death.[13] This monastery, dedicated to St Cyriacus,[14] was later converted into a convent.[15]
Gero's second son, Gero II, had already died at that point. The name of Gero's wife has to be hypothesised from libri memoriales: it was either Judith (Iudita) or Thietsuuind (Thietswind).

Death and division of territory

At his death, Gero's march extended as far as the Neisse river. He was not popular with the Saxon nobility of his day, because he had a strong sense of moral rectitude and was of low birth.
Nonetheless, he became celebrated in the Nibelungenlied as the marcgrâve Gêre, though have disputed whether he was ever officially accorded that title.[ Gero's tomb can still be see in Gernrode today. A decorative painting was added to it c. 1350. It depicts Gero standing over a vanquished Wend.[18]
After his death, the huge territory he had conquered was divided by the Emperor Otto into several different marches: the Northern March (under Dietrich of Haldensleben), the Eastern March (under Odo I), the March of Meissen (under Wigbert), the March of Merseburg (under Günther) and the March of Zeitz (under Wigger I). Later the Northern March was subdivided into the marches of Landsberg, Lusatia, and Brandenburg.
The division of Gero's "super-march" probably had something to do with its immense size and the political consideration of trying to please many without making enemies.[19] The subdivisions into which it was divided, however, were natural. As early as 963, Lusatia — and even upper and lower Lusatia — and the Ostmark were distinguishable as governable provinces within Gero's march.[2]

Sources

The primary chronicle sources for Gero's life are those of Widukind of Corvey and Thietmar of Merseburg, on which most of the work in the secondary sources is based

ربما ان ابرز معلومه عن هذا العظيم هي انه جاء من عائلة من عامة الشعب ( ليس من النبلاء ) لكنه حتما مجهول الطفولة ولا يكاد يعرف شيء عن الظروف التي نشأ فيها حتى ان تاريخ ميلاده غير مؤكد.

مجهول الطفولة

02-20-2012, 08:47 PM

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33- غوستاف الثاني أدولف

(9 ديسمبر 1594 - 6 نوفمبر 1632)، ويعرف باسمه اللاتينيغوستافوس (الثاني) أدولفوس وأحيانا حسب غوستاف أدولف العظيم (بالسويدية : GustavAdolf den store)، يعتبر أعظم ملوك السويد وأحد أهم الشخصيات البروتستانتية.يعتبر في جميع المراجع العسكرية أبو الحرب الحديثة

خلافته لكارل التاسع وسني حكمه الأولى

ولد غوستافوس أدولفوس في ستوكهولم إبناً لكارل التاسع ملك السويد من سلالة فاسا من زوجته الثانية كريستينا غوتورف-هولشتاين.

ورث العرش بعد وفاة والده في سن السابعة عشرة سنة 1611.

هدفت سياسته إلى إعادة تنظيم الحدود والشؤون الداخلية، وتحقيقا لهذه الغاية أبرم هدنة مع الدانمرك (صلح كنيرد، 1613). قام بتقوية الجيش، قام بسلسلة حملات عسكرية رائعة وموفقة نحو الشرق، فقاتل الروس ناجحاً بتوسيع حدوده حتى بحيرة لادوغا. وقد وُقـّع الصلح في ستولبوفا سنة 1617.

الحرب مع بولندا

و لكن الصراع الذي كان يشغل اهتمامه كان مع بولندا، حيث يتآمر الملك سيغيسموند الثالث (من نفس عائلة غوستاف الثاني) لإستعادت عرش السويد الذي اضطر لتركه إلى والد غوستاف خلال صراعات دينية سبقت حرب الثلاثين. استمرت الحرب لمدة اثني عشر عاما، وشهدت تدخل الدانمرك حليفة السويد، والنمسا لصالح البولنديين. ولئن أُجبر كريستيان الرابع ملك الدانمرك على التنازل حيال التقدم النمساوي (صلح لوبيك 1629)، فإن غوستافو الثاني تمكن من إخضاع سيغيسموند، مسلماً إيّاه حتى أراضي ليفونيا.

[عدل] حرب الأعوام الثلاثين

عززت هزيمة بولندا عسكريا الروابط مع الإمبراطور، والذي لمّا احتل بوميرانيا كان على اتصال مباشر مع القوة الإسكندنافية. وفي الواقع أن السويد قد قفزت إلى الطليعة في الشؤون الأوروبية، وحققت ازدهاراً اقتصاديا غير مسبوق بفضل التطورات في مجال التعدين والإنتاج الزراعي. كانت لدى غوستاف الثاني النية لجعل بحر البلطيق بحراً سويدياً، ونظر إلى التقدم النمساوي في بوميرانيا مثابة إعلان جديد للحرب. لذا وثـّق التحالف مع فرنسا سنة 1631 وجنّد قوات جديدة تم تدريبها بانضباط صارم جداً. نزل السويديون جزيرة أوزيدوم وهاجموا بوميرانيا، مسلحين بأحدث الأسلحة ومقتنعين وموحدين بإيمانهم البروتستانتي. ابتسمت الحرب لغوستاف منذ المواجهات الأولى : تم احتلال العديد من المعاقل وحقق انتصارين هامين في معركتي برايتنفيلد ولايبزيش. ثم احتل الإسنكدنافيون ميونخ وماينتس.

لوتسن وموت الملك

أعاد الإمبراطوريون المرعوبون من التقدم السويدي تنظيم صفوفهم، ووضعوا الجنرال فالينشتاين على رأس الجيش. قرر غوستاف الثاني بقواته المتحمسة بالانتصارات السهلة مهاجمة الألمان قرب لوتسن. واندلعت المعركة بضراوة شديدة ونادرة، وفي نهاية انتصر السويديون. ولكن، سقط الملك غوستاف الثاني أدولف قتيلا مصاباً بقذيفة قبل أن يتمكن من تأكيد الانتصار. عُهد بخلافته إلى ابنته كريستينا الأولى.

02-20-2012, 08:48 PM

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تابع ...

33- غوستاف الثاني أدولف

Gustav II Adolf (born 9 December 1594, died 6 November 1632, O.S.) has been widely known in English by his Latinized name Gustavus Adolphus Magnus and variously in historical writings also as Gustavus, or Gustavus the Great, or Gustav Adolph the Great (Swedish: Gustav Adolf den store, a formal distinction passed by the Swedish Parliament in 1634). He was King of Sweden (1611–1632) and founder of the Swedish Empire (or Stormaktstiden – "the era of great power") at the beginning of the Golden Age of Sweden. He led his nation to military supremacy during the Thirty Years War, helping to determine the political as well as the religious balance of power in Europe. He is thereby regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time. His most notable military victory was the battle of Breitenfeld. With a superb military machine with good weapons, excellent training, and effective field artillery, backed by an efficient government which could provide necessary funds, Gustavus Adolphus was poised to make himself a major European leader, but he was killed in battle of Lützen in 1632. He was assisted by Axel Oxenstierna (1583–1654), leader of the nobles who also acted as regent after his death.
In an era characterized by almost endless warfare, he led his armies as king from 1611 (at age 17) until his death in battle in 1632 while leading a charge — as Sweden rose from the status of a mere regional power and run-of-the-mill kingdom to one of the great powers of Europe and a model of early modern era government. Within only a few years of his accession Sweden had become the largest nation in Europe after Russia and Spain. Some have called him the "father of modern warfare",[1] or the first great modern general. Under his tutelage, Sweden and the Protestant cause developed a number of excellent commanders, such as Lennart Torstensson, who would go on to defeat Sweden's enemies and expand the boundaries and the power of the empire long after Gustav Adolph's death in battle.
He was known by the epithets "The Golden King" and "The Lion of the North" by neighboring sovereigns. Gustavus Adolphus is commemorated today with city squares in Stockholm, Gothenburg and Helsingborg. Gustavus Adolphus College, a Lutheran college in St. Peter, Minnesota is also named for the Swedish king.

Life

Gustavus Adolphus was born in Stockholm as the oldest son of Duke Charles of the Vasa dynasty and his second wife, Christina of Holstein-Gottorp. At the time, the King of Sweden was Gustavus Adolphus' cousin Sigismund. The staunch Protestant Duke Charles forced the Catholic King to let go of the throne of Sweden in 1599, a part of the preliminary religious strife before the Thirty Years' War, and reigned as regent before taking the throne as Charles IX of Sweden in 1604. Crown Prince Gustav Adolph had Gagnef-Floda in Dalecarlia as a duchy from 1610. Upon his father's death in October 1611, a sixteen-year-old Gustavus inherited the throne (declared of age and able to reign himself at seventeen as of December 16[2]), as well as an ongoing succession of occasionally belligerent dynastic disputes with his Polish cousin. Sigismund III wanted to regain the throne of Sweden and tried to force Gustavus Adolphus to renounce the title.
In a round of this dynastic dispute, Gustavus invaded Livonia when he was 31, beginning the Polish-Swedish War (1625–1629). He intervened on behalf of the Lutherans in Germany, who opened the gates to their cities to him. His reign became famous from his actions a few years later when on June 1630 he landed in Germany, continuing Sweden's involvement in the ongoing Thirty Years' War. Gustavus intervened on the anti-Imperial side, which at the time was losing to the Holy Roman Empire and its Catholic allies; the Swedish forces would quickly reverse that situation.
Gustavus was married to Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, the daughter of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, and chose the Prussian city of Elbing as the base for his operations in Germany. He died in the Battle of Lützen in 1632. His early death was a great loss to the Lutheran side. This resulted in large parts of Germany and other countries, which had been conquered for Lutheranism, to be reconquered for Catholicism (via Counter-Reformation). His involvement in the Thirty Years' War gave rise to the saying that he was the incarnation of "the Lion of the North", or as it is called in German "Der Löwe von Mitternacht" (Literally: "The Lion of Midnight").

Legacy

Gustavus Adolphus was an extremely able military commander.[3][4] His innovative tactical integration of infantry, cavalry, logistics and particularly his use of artillery, earned him the title of the "Father of Modern Warfare". Future commanders who studied and admired Gustav II Adolf include Napoleon I of France and Carl von Clausewitz. His advancements in military science made Sweden the dominant Baltic power for the next one hundred years (see Swedish Empire). He is also the only Swedish monarch to be styled "the Great". This decision was made by the Swedish Estates of the Realm, when they convened in 1633. Thus, by their decision he is officially, to this day, to be called Gustaf Adolf the Great (Gustavus Adolphus Magnus).
Gustavus Adolphus was the main figure responsible for the success of Swedish arms during the Thirty Years' War and led his nation to great prestige. As a general, Gustavus Adolphus is famous for employing mobile artillery on the battlefield, as well as very aggressive tactics, where attack was stressed over defense, and mobility and cavalry initiative were emphasized.
Among other innovations, he installed an early form of combined arms in his formations, where the cavalry could attack from the safety of an infantry line reinforced by cannon, and retire again within to regroup after their foray. He adopted much shallower infantry formations than were common in the pike and shot armies of the era, with formations typically fighting in 5 or 6 ranks, occasionally supported at some distance by another such formation—the gaps being the provinces of the artillery and cavalry as noted above. His artillery were themselves different—he would not let himself be hindered by cumbersome heavy cannon, but instead over a course of experimentation settled on smaller, more maneuverable weapons, in effect fielding the first light field artillery in history in significant numbers.
These were grouped in batteries supporting his more linearly deployed formations, replacing the cumbersome and unmaneuverable traditional deep squares (such as the Spanish Tercios that were up to 50 ranks deep) used in other pike and shot armies of the day. In consequence, his forces could redeploy and reconfigure very rapidly, confounding his enemies.
His armies were very well trained for the day, so that his musketeers were widely known for their firing accuracy and reload speed: three times faster than any contemporary rivals. Carl von Clausewitz and Napoleon Bonaparte considered him one of the greatest generals of all time; a sentiment agreed with by George S. Patton and others. He was also renowned for the consistency of purpose and the amity of his troops—no one part of his armies was considered better or received preferred treatment, as was common in other armies where the cavalry were the elite, followed by the artillery, and both disdained the lowly infantry. In Gustavus' army the units were extensively cross trained. Both cavalry and infantry could service the artillery, as his heavy cavalry did when turning captured artillery on the opposing Catholic Tercios at First Breitenfeld. Pikemen could shoot—if not as accurately as those designated musketeers—so a valuable firearm could be kept in the firing line. His infantrymen and gunners were taught to ride, if needed. Napoleon thought highly of the achievement, and copied the tactics.

02-20-2012, 08:49 PM

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33- غوستاف الثاني أدولف

Reengineering

Gustavus Adolphus was a very forward thinking military engineer. He reengineered the way in which his army worked, with simple innovations that proved devastating to his adversaries.
One example of this was the Swedish cavalry system. Cavalry had been pushed to the fringes of military worth and had been largely neutralized by the Spanish tercios. They were being ineffectively used to charge the enemy front or flank, fire broadsides with pistols and muskets and then retreat to reload and reform.[5] However, Gustavus Adolphus used light cannons (reengineered to have 3 standard calibers, one of which was eventually called "The Regimental Cannon,") along with muskets to eliminate enemy pikemen, then the cavalry would swoop in and cut through enemy lines with sabers.[5]

Military commander

Gustavus Adolphus inherited three wars from his father when he ascended the throne: Against Denmark, which had attacked Sweden earlier in 1611, against Russia, due to Sweden having tried to take advantage of the Russian Time of Troubles, and against Poland, due to King Charles' having deposed King Sigismund III, his nephew, as King of Sweden.
The war against Denmark (Kalmar War) was concluded in 1613 with a peace that did not cost Sweden any territory, but it was forced to pay a heavy indemnity to Denmark (Treaty of Knäred). During this war, Gustavus Adolphus let his soldiers plunder towns and villages and as he met little resistance from Danish forces in Scania, they pillage and devastate 24 Scanian parishes. His memory in Scania has been negative because of that.[citation needed]
The war against Russia (Ingrian War) ended in 1617 with the Treaty of Stolbovo, which excluded Russia from the Baltic Sea. The final inherited war, the war against Poland, ended in 1629 with the Truce of Altmark which transferred the large province Livonia to Sweden and freed the Swedish forces for the subsequent intervention in the Thirty Years' War in Germany, where Swedish forces had already established a bridgehead n 1628.
When Gustavus Adolphus began his push into northern Germany in June–July 1630, he had just 4,000 troops. But he was soon able to consolidate the Protestant position in the north, using reinforcements from Sweden and money supplied by France (Treaty of Bärwalde). After Swedish plundering in Brandenburg (1631) endangered the system of retrieving war contributions from occupied territories, "marauding and plundering" by Swedish soldiers was prohibited.[6] Meanwhile, a Catholic army under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly was laying waste to Saxony. Gustavus Adolphus met Tilly's army and crushed it at the First Battle of Breitenfeld in September 1631. He then marched clear across Germany, establishing his winter quarters near the Rhine, making plans for the invasion of the rest of the Holy Roman Empire.
In March 1632, Gustavus Adolphus invaded Bavaria, a staunch ally of the Emperor. He forced the withdrawal of his Catholic opponents at the Battle of Rain. This would mark the high point of the campaign. In the summer of that year, he sought a political solution that would preserve the existing structure of states in Germany, while guaranteeing the security of its Protestants. But achieving these objectives depended on his continued success on the battlefield.
Gustavus is reported to have entered battle without wearing any armor, proclaiming, "The Lord God, is my armor!" It is more likely that he simply wore a leather cuirass rather than going into battle wearing no battle protection whatsoever. In 1627, near Dirschau in Prussia, a Polish soldier shot him in the muscles above his shoulders. He survived, but the doctors could not remove the bullet, so from that point on, he could not wear iron armor. Also, two fingers of his right hand were paralyzed.[7]
Gustavus Adolphus was killed at the Battle of Lützen, when, at a crucial point in the battle, he became separated from his troops while leading a cavalry charge into a dense smog of mist and gunpowder smoke. After his death, his wife initially kept his body, and later his heart, in the castle of Nyköping for over a year. His remains (including his heart) now rest in Riddarholmskyrkan in Stockholm.
In February 1633, following the death of the king, the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates decided that his name would be styled Gustav Adolf the Great (or Gustaf Adolf den Store in Swedish). No such honor has been bestowed on any other Swedish monarch before or since.
The crown of Sweden was inherited in the Vasa family, and from Charles IX's time excluded those Vasa princes who had been traitors or descended from deposed monarchs. Gustavus Adolphus' younger brother had died ten years before, and therefore there were only the King's daughter left as a female heir. Maria Eleonora and the king's ministers took over the government on behalf of Gustavus Adolphus' underage daughter Christina upon her father's death. He left one other known child, his illegitimate son Gustav, Count of Vasaborg.

Alternative views

The German Socialist Franz Mehring (1846–1919) wrote a biography of Gustavus Adolphus with a Marxist perspective on the actions of the Swedish king during the Thirty Years' War. In it, he makes a case that the war was fought over economics and trade rather than religion.
In his book "Ofredsår" ("Years of Warfare"), the Swedish historian and author Peter Englund argues that there was probably no single all-important reason for the king's decision to go to war. Instead, it was likely a combination of religious, security, as well as economic considerations.
This view is supported by German historian Johannes Burkhardt who writes that Gustavus entered the 30 Years War exactly 100 years after the publication of the Confessio Augustana, the core confession of faith of the Lutheran Church, and let himself be praised as its saviour. Yet Gustavus' own "manifesto of war" does not mention any religious motivations at all but speaks of political and economical reasons. Sweden would have to maintain its integrity in the face of several provocations and aggressions by the Habsburgian Empire. The manifesto was written by scholar Johann Adler Salvius in a style common of the time that promotes a "just war". Burkhardt argues that traditional Swedish historiography constructed a defensive interest in security out of that by taking the manifesto's text for granted. But to defend Stockholm, the occupation of the German Baltic territories would have been an extreme advance and the imperial Baltic Sea fleet mentioned as a threat in the manifesto had never reached more than a quarter of the size of the Swedish fleet. Moreover it was never maintained to challenge Sweden but to face the separatist Netherlands. So if ruling the Baltic Sea was a goal of Swedish strategy, the conquests in Germany were not a defensive war but an act of expansion. From Swedish Finland, Gustavus advanced along the Baltic Sea coast and eventually to Augsburg and Munich and he even urged the Swiss Confederacy to join him. This was no longer about Baltic interests but the imperial capital of Vienna and the alpine passes were now in close reach of the Swedish army. Another point mentioned by Burkhardt is the Gothic legacy of the Swedes, which had become a political program. The Swedish king was also "Rex Gotorum", (Latin: King of the Goths) and the list of kings was traced back to the Gothic rulers to construct continuity. Prior to his embarkment to northern Germany, Gustavus urged the Swedish nobility to follow the example of conquests set by their Gothic ancestors. Had he lived longer, it would have been likely that Gustavus had reached out for the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire.[8]

Politics

Gustav II Adolf's success in making Sweden one of the great powers of Europe, and perhaps the most important power in the Thirty Years' War after France and Spain, was due not only to his military brilliance, but also to important institutional reforms in Sweden's government. The chief among these reforms was the institution of the first Parish registrations, so that the central government could more efficiently tax and conscript its populace.
Gustav II Adolf's politics in the conquered territory of Estonia also show progressive tendencies. In 1631 he forced the nobility to grant the peasants greater autonomy.[9] He also encouraged education, opening a school in Tallinn in 1631, today known as Gustav Adolf High School (in Estonian: Gustav Adolfi Gümnaasium)[10] On 30 June 1632, Gustav II Adolf signed the Foundation Decree of Academia Dorpatensis in Estonia, today known as the University of Tartu.[11] With policies that supported the common people, the period of Swedish rule over Estonia initiated by Gustav II Adolf and continued by his successors, is popularly known by Estonians as the "good old Swedish times" (Estonian: vana hea Rootsi aeg).[12]
On August 27, 1617, he spoke before his coronation, and his words included these:
I had carefully learned to understand, about that experience which I could have upon things of rule, how fortune is failing or great, subject to such rule in common, so that otherwise I would have had scant reason to desire such a rule, had I not found myself obliged to it through God’s bidding and nature. – Now it was of my acquaintance, that inasmuch as God had let me be born a prince, such as I then am born, then my good and my destruction were knotted into one with the common good; for every reason then, it was now my promise that I should take great pains about their well-being and good governance and management, and thereabout bear close concern.[13]

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Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo (374–413) (r. 391–413) was the nineteenth monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. His full posthumous name roughly means "Very Greatest King, Broad Expander of Territory, buried in Gukgangsang.", sometimes abbreviated to Hotaewang or Taewang. He selected Yeongnak as his era name, and was called Emperor Yeongnak the Great during his reign.

Under Gwanggaeto, Goguryeo once again became a major power of East Asia, having enjoyed such a status in the 2nd century CE. Upon Emperor Gwanggaeto's death at thirty-nine years of age in 413, Goguryeo controlled all territory between the Amur and Han Rivers (two thirds of modern Korea, Manchuria, and parts of the Russian Maritime province and Inner Mongolia).
In addition, in 399, Silla submitted to Goguryeo for protection from raids from Baekje. Gwanggaeto captured the Baekje capital in present-day Seoul and made Baekje its vassal. Many consider this loose unification under Goguryeo to have been the only true unification of the Three Kingdoms.
Gwanggaeto's accomplishments are recorded on the Gwanggaeto Stele, erected in 414 at the site of his tomb in Ji'an along the present-day Chinese-North Korean border. It is the largest engraved stele in the world.

Birth and background

At the time of Gwanggaeto's birth, Goguryeo was not as powerful as it once had been. Just prior to his birth, King Geunchogo of Baekje had soundly defeated Goguryeo, slaying Emperor Gogukwon of Goguryeo. Emperor Sosurim of Goguryeo, who succeeded Gogukwon upon the latter's death in 371, kept his foreign policy as isolationist as possible so as to rebuild a state gravely weakened by the Baekje invasion of 371. Gogukyang, who succeeded Sosurim, maintained a similar policy, opting to focus on the rehabilitation and remobilization of Goguryeo forces.
After defeating Goguryeo in 371, Baekje had become a one of the most dominant power in East Asia, whose influence was not limited to the Korean peninsula. That state's Emperor Geunchogo seized several coastal cities of China, notably in Liaoxi and Shandong, to retain its superiority over Goguryeo and a variety of southern Chinese dynasties, which had arisen within the context of extended civil wars caused by the fall of the Han Dynasty in 220 CE and the concomitant invasions of foreign tribes, including but not limited to the Xiongnu and Xianbei (Wu Hu). Baekje under Geunchogo's leadership also seems to have had a close relationship with parts of Wa (Japan) and established good relations with that archipelago's natives. Thus Goguryeo, surrounded by a powerful Baekje's forces to its south and west, was inclined to avoid conflict with its peninsular neighbor while cultivating constructive relations with the Xienpei and Rouran, in order to defend itself from future invasions, and even the possible destruction of its state.

Rise to power and campaigns against Baekje

Gwanggaeto succeeded his father, Emperor Gogukyang, upon his death in 391. Immediately upon being crowned Emperor of Goguryeo, Gwanggaeto granted himself the title "Supreme King Yeongnak", affirming himself as equal to the rulers of China and the Emperor of Baekje. He then began to rebuild and retrain Goguryeo's cavalry units and naval fleet, and they were put into action the following year, 392, against Baekje.
In 392, with Gwanggaeto in personal command, Goguryeo attacked Baekje with 50,000 cavalry, taking 10 walled cities along the two countries' mutual border. This offensive infuriated King Asin of Baekje and he subsequently planned a counter-offensive against Gwanggaeto, a plan he was forced to abandon when his invasion force was defeated by Goguryeo in 393. King Asin again attacked Goguryeo in 394, and was again defeated. After several heavy defeats, Baekje began to politically crumble and the leadership of Asin came under doubt. Baekje was defeated by Goguryeo again in 395, and was eventually pushed back to a front along the Han River, where Wiryeseong was, then its capital city located in the southern part of modern day Seoul.
In the following year, Gwanggaeto led his huge fleet in an assault on Wiryeseong, approaching by sea and river. Asin was expecting a ground invasion and was caught with his defenses down. Gwanggaeto's forces burnt about 58 walled fortresses under Baekje control, and defeated the forces of King Asin. Asin surrendered to Gwanggaeto, even handing over his brother as a Goguryeo captive as condition for maintaining his own rule over Baekje. Gwanggaeto had finally gained superiority over its longtime rival Baekje on the Korean peninsula.

Conquest of the North

In 395, during a campaign against Baekje, the Emperor himself attacked and conquered Beili, a small part of the Khitan tribe located in central Manchuria. Its exact location is not known but it was not very far from the Songhua River.
In 400, Later Yan, founded by the Murong clan of the Xianbei in present-day Liaoning province, attacked Goguryeo. Gwanggaeto responded swiftly, recovering most of the territory seized by the Xianbei and driving most of them from Goguryeo. Then in 402, he decided to launch an attack on Later Yan itself, determined to protect his Kingdom from further threat. In the same year Gwanggaeto defeated the Xienpei, seizing some of their border fortresses. In 404, he invaded Liaodong and took the entire Liaodong Peninsula.
The Xianbei did not watch idly as Goguryeo forces took over their lands. In 405, forces of the Later Yan crossed the Liao River, and attacked Goguryeo but were defeated by Gwanggaeto. The Murong Xianbei invaded once again the following year, but yet again the Goguryeo king was able to repel them. Gwanggaeto led several more campaigns against Xianbei as well as against Khitan tribes in Inner Mongolia, which he brought under his control. In 408, the Emperor sent a peace delegate to Gao Yun, then ruler of Later Yan/Northern Yan, to broker a settlement between the two dynasties, because Gao Yun descended from the Goguryeo royal house as well. Goguryeo control over the Liaoning region remained strong until the Tang Dynasty seized the area as a part of its war against Goguryeo in the late 7th century.
In 410 Gwanggaeto began his conquest of the Dongbuyeo. The Dongbuyeo was no match for the massive army of Goguryeo, and it suffered a series of defeat, finally surrendering to Goguryeo after King Gwanggaeto conquered sixty-four walled cities and more than 1,400 villages. Gwanggaeto also attacked several Malgal and Ainu tribes further north, bringing them under Goguryeo domination.

Southeastern campaigns

In 400, Silla, another Korean kingdom in the southeast of the peninsula, requested Goguryeo assistance to defend against an alliance of Japanese army, the Baekje kingdom to the west, and the Gaya Confederacy to the southwest. In the same year, Emperor Gwanggaeto responded with 50,000 troops, defeated both Japanese and Gaya cavalry units, and made both Silla and Gaya submit to his authority. In 402, he returned Silseong to Silla, to establish peaceful relationship with the kingdom while he continued the conquest of the north, but Goguryeo forces remained and continued to influence Silla.

Death and legacy

Emperor Gwanggaeto died of unknown disease in 413, at the age of thirty-nine. Although Gwanggaeto ruled for only twenty-two years and died fairly young, his conquests are said to mark the high tide of Korean history. Except for the period of 200 years beginning with his son and successor, King Jangsu, and the later kingdom of Balhae, Korea never before or since ruled such a vast territory. There is evidence that Goguryeo's maximum extent lay even further west, in present-day Mongolia, bordered by the Rouran and Göktürks. Gwanggaeto is also given credit for establishing the reign titles that were recorded for the first time in Korean history, a symbolic gesture elevating Goguryeo monarchs as equals to their Chinese counterparts.
Today, Emperor Gwanggaeto the Great is one of two rulers of Korea who were given the title 'Great' after their name (the other one being King Sejong the Great of Joseon, who created the Korean alphabet). He is regarded by Koreans as one of the greatest heroes of their history, and is often taken as a potent symbol of Korean nationalism. Recently, the People's Republic of China launched its program of attempting to incorporate the history of Goguryeo within the context of Chinese history, which has been met with indignation from Koreans.
The Gwanggaeto Stele, a six-meter monument erected by Emperor Jangsu in 414, was rediscovered in Manchuria in 1875 by a Chinese scholar. Although the stele gives us a great amount of information of his reign, it also caused a controversy about historical view. This is because it contains several references to Japan. Those stories of Wa (Japan) are:
· in 391 Wa (Japan) crossed the sea and defeated Baekje and Silla and made them subjects.
· in 399 allied armies of Baekje and Wa invaded into Silla. Silla asked Goguryeo for help.
· in 400 Goguryeo expelled Wa from Silla to southern Korea.
· in 404 Wa lost the battle against Goguryeo in the southern Lelang (South Pyongan).
Among them, the story of the year 391 became very controversial as the text of the stele is not clear and it mentions Japan's presence in the Korean Peninsula in the 4th century, which Korean scholars reject. Also, Japan's presence in Korean peninsula with power in 391 is not possible for every Silla and Baekje based historical literature indicates that this did not occur. Most people find it odd that an artifact dedicated to the great achievements of Goguryeo would mention a Japanese achievement not related to Goguryeo or King Gwanggaeto. Also, historians indicate the substantial technological difference between Japan and Korea at that time. It would have been impossible for Japan to have subjugated a country which had superior technology over an ocean barrier. Korean scholars claim that the stele was intentionally damaged by the Imperial Japanese Army to provide historical precedent for the Japanese occupation of Korea. This is highly possible since Japan has manipulated several historical documents during its Imperial era in early 20th century. The Korean scholars claim that the passage should be interpreted as:
· in 391 Wa (Japan) crossed the sea. However, Goguryeo defeated Baekje and Wa (Japan) and made them [Baekje, Silla, Gaya, and Wa] subjects.
It is currently almost impossible to have consensus over this issue between Korean and Japanese scholars due to nationalism. This disagreement subsequently affected the project of writing a common history textbook among Korea, Japan, and China.