The Wright brothers, Orville (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were two American brothers, inventors, and aviation pioneers who were credited[1][2][3] with inventing and building the world's first successful airplane and making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight, on December 17, 1903. From 1905 to 1907, the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft. Although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible.

The brothers' fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and to maintain its equilibrium.[4][5][6][7] This method became standard and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds.[8][9] From the beginning of their aeronautical work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving "the flying problem". This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put more emphasis on developing powerful engines.[10] Using a small homebuilt wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings and propellers that were more efficient than any before.[11][12] Their first U.S. patent, 821,393, did not claim invention of a flying machine, but rather, the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine's surfaces.[13]

They gained the mechanical skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors, and other machinery. Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that an unstable vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice.[14] From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive glider tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their bicycle shop employee Charlie Taylor became an important part of the team, building their first aircraft engine in close collaboration with the brothers.

The Wright brothers' status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to counter-claims by various parties. Much controversy persists over the many competing claims of early External links

10- الباراشوت جان بيير بلانشار فرنسي 1785م

- البحث عن طفولة وخلفية حياة هذا المخترع اظهر اهتمام الكتاب في الاختراع اكثر من حياتة وكيف كانت عليه طفولته
- فقط مرجع واحد يقول انه كان ابن عائلة فلاحين فقيرة وانه انتقل الى باريس.
- وهو ما يشير الى طفولة صعبة لكننا لا نكاد نعرف شيء عن طفولته.
- مجهول الطفولة.

11- التلغراف صموئيل مورس أمريكي 1835م
- ليس يتيم لكن طفولته مليئة بالموت.
- مات له خمسة اخوة واربعة اخوات خلال الطفولة وقبل ان يصل الى سن العشرين.
- التحق بالكلية بعيدا عن العائلة وهو في سن الرابعة عشرة
- سافر الى لندن في سن التاسعة عشرة.
- ماتت زوجته عام 1825 ثم مات ابوه في العام 1826 وماتت امه في العام 1828.
- مأزوم.

Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek[note 1] (/ˈleɪvənhʊk/, Dutch:*[ɑnˈtoːni vɑn ˈleːuə(n)ˌɦuk]*( listen); October 24, 1632 – August 26, 1723) was a Dutch tradesman and scientist. He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist. He is best known for his work on the improvement of the microscope and for his contributions towards the establishment of microbiology.

Raised in Delft, Netherlands, Leeuwenhoek worked as a draper in his youth, and founded his own shop in 1654. He made a name for himself in municipal politics, and eventually developed an interest in lensmaking. Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which are now referred to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, and blood flow in capillaries (small blood vessels). Leeuwenhoek did not author any books; his discoveries came to light through correspondence with the Royal Society, which published his letters.

Early life and career
Sir William Davidson of Curriehill had appointed Leeuwenhoek in 1648 as his assistant. Leeuwenhoek left after six years. (By Abraham van den Tempel, 1664)

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was born in Delft, Holland, on October 24, 1632. Christened Thonis, he is believed to be of Hollander ancestry: his father, Philips Antonysz van Leeuwenhoek, was a basket maker who died when Antony was five years old.
His mother, Margaretha (Bel van den Berch), came from a well-to-do brewer's family, and married Jacbon Jansz Molijn, a painter, after Philips' death.
Antony had four older sisters, Margriete, Geertruyt, Neeltge, and Catharina. Little is known of his early life; he attended school near Leyden for a short time before being sent to live in Benthuizen with his uncle, an attorney and town clerk.
He became an apprentice at a linen-draper's shop in Amsterdam at the age of 16.]

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14- السماعة الطبية رينيه لينيك فرنسي 1818م

- يتيم الام وعمره خمس سنوات او 6 سنوات بسبب مرض السل.
- انتقل للعيش مع عمه الراهب.
- وهو في سن الثانية عشرة انتقل للعيش مع عمه الاخر في مدينة نيس حيث كان يدرس الطب.
- انقطع عن دارسة الطب بتشجيع من الده وعايش حياة الهبي لسنوات يكتب الشعر ويسير مسافات طويلة.

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René Laennec

René Laennec
Born17 February 1781
Quimper, FranceDied13 August 1826
Ploaré, FranceCitizenshipFranceNationalityFrenchKnown forInvented the stethoscope
René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laennec[1] (French: [laɛnɛk]; 17 February 1781 – 13 August 1826) was a French physician. He invented the stethoscope in 1816, while working at the Hôpital Necker and pioneered its use in diagnosing various chest conditions.
He became a lecturer at the Collège de France in 1822 and professor of medicine in 1823. His final appointments were that of Head of the Medical Clinic at the Hôpital de la Charité and Professor at the Collège de France. He died of tuberculosis in 1826.

Early life and personality

Laennec was born in Quimper (Brittany). His mother died of tuberculosis when he was five or six, and he went to live with his grand-uncle the Abbé Laennec (a priest).
At the age of twelve he proceeded to Nantes where his uncle, Guillaime-François Laennec, worked in the faculty of medicine at the university. Laennec was a gifted student, he learned English and German, and began his medical studies under his uncle's direction.
His father (a lawyer) later discouraged him from continuing as a doctor and René then had a period of time where he took long walks in the country, danced, studied Greek and wrote poetry.

However, in 1799 he returned to study. Laennec studied medicine in Paris under several famous physicians, including Dupuytren and Jean-Nicolas Corvisart-Desmarets. There he was trained to use sound as a diagnostic aid. Corvisart advocated the re-introduction of percussion during the French Revolution. Laennec was a devout Catholic. He was noted as a very kind man and his charity to the poor became proverbial.
The invention of the stethoscope

Laennec had discovered that the new stethoscope was superior to the normally used method of placing the ear over the chest, particularly if the patient was overweight. A stethoscope also avoided the embarrassment of placing the ear against the chest of a woman.

The first drawing of a stethoscope, 1819



A modern stethoscope


Laennec is said to have seen schoolchildren playing with long, hollow sticks in the days leading up to his innovation.[4] The children held their ear to one end of the stick while the opposite end was scratched with a pin, the stick transmitted and amplified the scratch. His skill as a flautist may also have inspired him. He built his first instrument as a 25 cm by 2.5 cm hollow wooden cylinder, which he later refined to comprise three detachable parts.
His clinical work allowed him to follow chest patients from bedside to the autopsy table. He was therefore able to correlate sounds captured by his new instruments with specific pathological changes in the chest, in effect pioneering a new non-invasive diagnostic tool. Laennec was the first to classify and discuss the terms rales, rhonchi, crepitance, and egophony – terms that doctors now use on a daily basis during physical exams and diagnoses.[4] In February 1818, he presented his findings in a talk at the Academie de Medecin, later publishing his findings in 1819.
Laennec coined the phrase mediate auscultation (indirect listening), as opposed to the popular practice at the time of directly placing the ear on the chest (immediate auscultation). He named his instrument the stethoscope, from stethos (chest), and skopos (examination).

One of the original stethoscopes belonging to Rene Theophile Laennec made of wood and brass


Not all doctors readily embraced the new stethoscope. Although the New England Journal of Medicine reported the invention of the stethoscope two years later, in 1821, as late as 1885 a professor of medicine stated, "He that hath ears to hear, let him use his ears and not a stethoscope." Even the founder of the American Heart Association, L. A. Connor (1866–1950) carried a silk handkerchief with him to place on the wall of the chest for ear auscultation.[5]
Laennec often referred to the stethoscope as "the cylinder," and as he neared death only a few years later, he bequeathed his own stethoscope to his nephew, referring to it as "the greatest legacy of my life."
The modern binaural stethoscope with two ear pieces was invented in 1851 by Arthur Leared. George Cammann perfected the design of the instrument for commercial production in 1852, which has become the standard ever since.

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Dunlop the reputed inventor of the pneumatic tyre was born in 1840 to a farming family in Dreghorn. Dreghorn was a mining village situated in North Ayrshire, it lies just a few miles east of the royal burgh of Irvine. Contrary to popular belief, Dunlop did not invent the pneumatic tyre, it was actually invented by Robert William Thomson, another Scot

John B. Dunlop was born in Aryshire, Scotland. After completing his schooling, Dunlop practiced as a veterinary surgeon first in Edinburgh, Scotland, andthen in Belfast, Ireland. In 1887 Dunlop was asked by his young son to thinkof some way to make the boy's tricycle ride more comfortably on Belfast's cobblestone streets. Dunlop began experimenting with improvements to the tricycle's solid rubber tires. He cut up an old garden hose, made it into a tube, pumped it up with air, and fitted it to the rear wheels of his son's tricycle.Dunlop had reinvented the pneumatic tire, which, unknown to Dunlop, had firstbeen invented by Robert Thomson in 1845.

Dunlop tested and patented his pneumatic tire in Great Britain in 1888, and secured a U.S. patent in 1890. An Irish industrialist named W. H. Du Cros became interested in Dunlop's invention after a cyclist won a Belfast race with his pneumatic-tired bicycle. Du Cros organized a company with Dunlop, which became the Dunlop Rubber Company, eventually a worldwide concern.

Dunlop did not profit greatly from his invention. He sold his patent and interest in the company to Du Cros in 1896 and retired to Dublin, where his onlybusiness activity until his death there in 1921 was an interest in a draperyfirm.

After its introduction in 1888, Dunlop's pneumatic tires became standard equipment for bicycles since they so well absorbed the direct road shock that bicyclists experienced. The same year as Dunlop's patent, the first automobile was produced by Karl Benz of Mannheim, Germany. The availability of Dunlop's new tires led to experiments by others to produce a thicker-tread tire for motor vehicles, and in 1895 Michelin's first automobile tire appeared. With thegrowing popularity of the automobile after 1900, the demand for increasinglydurable rubber compounds for both bicycles and autos became enormous. Dunlop's invention gave rise to two major industries.

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Frank Whittle was born on June 1 1907, in the Earlsdon district of Coventry, the son of a foreman in a machine tool factory.

When Frank was four his father, a skilful and inventive mechanic who spent Sundays at a drawing board, gave him a toy aeroplane with a clockwork propeller and suspended it from a gas mantle. During the First World War Frank's interest in aeroplanes increased when he saw aircraft being built at the local Standard works, and was excited when an aeroplane force-landed near his home.

In 1916 the family moved to Leamington Spa, where Frank's father had bought the Leamington Valve and Piston Ring Company, which comprised a few lathes and other tools, and a single-cylinder gas engine. Frank became familiar with machine tools and did piece work for his father.

Frank won a scholarship to Leamington College, but when his father's business faltered there was not enough money to keep him there. Instead he spent hours in the local library, learning about steam and gas turbines.

In January 1923, having passed the entrance examination, Whittle reported at RAF Halton as an aircraft apprentice. He lasted only two days; only five feet tall and with a small chest measurement, he failed the medical.

Six months later, after subjecting himself to an intense physical training programme supported by a special diet, he was rejected again. Undeterred, he applied using a different first name, passed the written examination again and was ordered to Cranwell where he was accepted.

In 1926, strongly recommended by his commanding officer, he passed a flying medical and was awarded one of five coveted cadetships at the RAF College. The cadetship meant that he would now train as a pilot. In his second term he went solo in an Avro 504N biplane after eight hours' instruction.

Whittle graduated to Bristol fighters and, after a temporary loss of confidence due to blacking out in a tight loop, developed into something of a daredevil. He was punished for hedge-hopping. But he shone in science subjects and in 1928 wrote a revolutionary thesis entitled Future Developments in Aircraft Design.

THE PAPER discussed the possibilities of rocket propulsion and of gas turbines driving propellers, although it stopped short of proposing the use of the gas turbine for jet propulsion. However, Whittle launched his quest for a power plant capable of providing high speed at very high altitude.

In the summer of 1928 he passed out second and received the Andy Fellowes Memorial Prize for Aeronautical Sciences. He was rated "Exceptional to Above Average" as a pilot on Siskin operational fighters - but red-inked into his logbook were warnings about over confidence, an inclination to perform to the gallery and low flying.

At the end of August 1928, Pilot Officer Whittle joined No 111, an operational fighter squadron equipped with Siskins and based at Hornchurch, and was then posted to the Central Flying School, Wittering, for a flying instructor's course. In his spare time he conceived a gas turbine to produce a propelling jet, rather than driving a propeller. A sympathetic instructor, Flying Officer Pat Johnson, who had been a patent agent in civilian life, arranged an interview with the commandant.

This resulted in an almost immediate call from the Air Ministry and an introduction to Dr A A Griffith at the ministry's South Kensington laboratory. Griffith was already interested in gas turbines for driving propellers, and scorned Whittle's proposals. The Air Ministry informed Whittle that successful development of his scheme was considered impracticable. Whittle nevertheless took out his jet patent, and qualified as a flying instructor.

Pat Johnson, still convinced by Whittle's ideas, set up a meeting at British Thomson-Houston, near Rugby, with the company's chief turbine engineer. While not questioning the validity of Whittle's invention, BTH baulked at the prospect of spending £60,000 on development.

At the end of 1930 Whittle was posted to test floatplanes at the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment at Felixstowe. On leave he publicised his jet engine proposal, unsuccessfully. Fortuitously, a friend from Cranwell days, Rolf Dudley-Williams, was based at Felixstowe with a flying-boat squadron, and his efforts on Whittle's behalf soon bore fruit.

In the summer of 1932 Whittle was sent on an engineering course at RAF Henlow. He did so well that, exceptionally in that period, he was permitted to take a two-year engineering course as a member of Peterhouse College, Cambridge, where in 1936 he took a First in the Mechanical Sciences Tripos.

While he was at Cambridge his jet engine patent lapsed; the Air Ministry refused to pay the £5 renewal fee. But in May that year he received an inquiry from Dudley-Williams, who was by then a partner with another former RAF pilot, named Tinling, in General Enterprises Ltd.

The two men undertook to cover the expenses of further patents, to raise money, and to act as Whittle's agents. In the New Year of 1936 an agreement was signed between Dudley-Williams and Tinling, Whittle, the president of the Air Council, and O T Falk & Partners, a firm of City bankers.

A company, Power Jets, was incorporated and Whittle received permission from the Air Ministry to serve as honorary chief engineer and technical consultant for five years, providing there was no conflict with his official duties.

It was as well, because in July, turbo-jet experiments began at Junkers and Heinkel in Germany; at this stage, Whittle's ideas were not subject to the Official Secrets Act. It was a relief when the He 178, after some promise, was scrapped.

Whittle, seeking somewhere to develop his design on modest Power Jets' capital, returned to BTH at Rugby and the company contracted to build a "WU" (Whittle Unit), his first experimental jet engine. At the same time he tried to persuade companies to develop the specialised materials he needed.

First attempts to run Whittle's jet at Rugby in April 1937 produced a series of alarming incidents as it raced out of control and BTH hands bolted for cover. Money was required for further development, but this was scarce, although an Air Ministry contract provided a paltry £1,900.

In 1938 BTH moved the test-bed to its Ladywood works at Lutterworth where, in September, the engine, reconstructed for the third time, was assembled. A further £6,000 of Air Ministry money was pledged and engine tests resumed in December.

WITH THE OUTBREAK of war in September 1939, the project got a further lease of life. The Air Ministry commissioned a more powerful W 2 from Power Jets, and asked the Gloster Aircraft Company for an experimental aeroplane, specified as E 28/39

17- البيانو كريستو فوري إيطالي 1690م
- مجهول الطفولة.

Bartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (May 4, 1655 – January 27, 1731) was an Italian maker of musical instruments, generally regarded as the inventor of the piano.
Life]
The available source materials on Cristofori's life include his birth and death records, two wills, the bills he submitted to his employers, and a single interview done by Scipione Maffei. From the latter, both Maffei's notes and the published journal article are preserved.
Cristofori was born in Padua in the Republic of Venice. Nothing is known of his early life. A tale is told that he served as an apprentice to the great violin maker Nicolò Amati, based on the appearance in a 1680 census record of a "Christofaro Bartolomei" living in Amati's house in Cremona. However, as Stewart Pollens points out (see References below), this person cannot be Bartolomeo Cristofori, since the census records an age of 13, whereas Cristofori according to his baptismal record would have been 25 at the time. Pollens also doubts the authenticity of the cello and double bass instruments sometimes attributed to Cristofori.
Probably the most important event in Cristofori's life is the first one of which we have any record: in 1688, at age 33, he was recruited to work for Prince Ferdinando de Medici. Ferdinando, a lover and patron of music, was the son and heir of Cosimo III, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Tuscany was at a time still a small independent state.
It is not known what led Ferdinando to recruit Cristofori. The Prince traveled to Venice in 1688 to attend the Carnival, so he may have met Cristofori passing through Padua on his way home. Ferdinando was looking for a new technician to take care of his many musical instruments, the previous incumbent having just died. However, it seems possible that the Prince wanted to hire Cristofori not just as his technician, but specifically as an innovator in musical instruments. It would be surprising if Cristofori at age 33 had not already shown the inventiveness for which he later became famous.
The evidence—all circumstantial—that Cristofori may have been hired as an inventor is as follows. According to Stewart Pollens, there were already a number of qualified individuals in Florence who could have filled the position; however, the Prince passed them over, and paid Cristofori a higher salary than his predecessor. Moreover, Pollens notes, "curiously, [among the many bills Cristofori submitted to his employer] there are no records of bills submitted for Cristofori's pianofortes ... This could mean that Cristofori was expected to turn over the fruits of his experimentation to the court." Lastly, the Prince was evidently fascinated with machines (he collected over forty clocks, in addition to a great variety of elaborate musical instruments), and would thus be naturally interested in the elaborate mechanical action that was at the core of Cristofori's work on the piano.
Maffei's interview reports Cristofori's memory of his conversation with the Prince at this time:
che fu detto al Principe, che non volevo; rispos' egli il farò volere io.
which Giuliana Montanari (reference below) translates as:
The prince was told that I did not wish to go; he replied that he would make me want to
This suggests that the Prince may have felt that Cristofori would be a prize recruit and was trying to charm him into accepting his offer; consistent again with the view that the Prince was attempting to recruit him as an inventor.
In any event, Cristofori agreed to the appointment, for a salary of 12 scudi per month. He moved rather quickly to Florence (May 1688; his job interview having taken place in March or April), was issued a house, complete with utensils and equipment, by the Grand Duke's administration, and set to work. For the Prince, he tuned, maintained, and transported instruments; worked on his various inventions, and also did restoration work on valuable older harpsichords.[1]
At this time, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany employed a large staff of about 100 artisans, who worked in the Galleria dei Lavori of the Uffizi. Cristofori's initial work space was probably in this area, which did not please him. He later told Maffei:
che da principio durava fatica ad andare nello stanzone in questo strepito
It was hard for me to have to go into the big room with all that noise (tr. Montanari)
Cristofori did eventually obtain his own workshop, usually keeping one or two assistants working for him.

During the remaining years of the 17th century, Cristofori invented two keyboard instruments before he began his work on the piano. These instruments are documented in an inventory, dated 1700, of the many instruments kept by Prince Ferdinando. Stewart Pollens conjectures that this inventory was prepared by a court musician named Giovanni Fuga, who may have referred to it as his own in a 1716 letter.[2]
The spinettone, Italian for "big spinet", was a large, multi-choired spinet (a harpsichord in which the strings are slanted to save space), with disposition 1 x 8', 1 x 4';[3] most spinets have the simple disposition 1 x 8'. This invention may have been meant to fit into a crowded orchestra pit for theatrical performances, while having the louder sound of a multi-choired instrument.
The other invention (1690) was the highly original oval spinet, a kind of virginal with the longest strings in the middle of the case.
Cristofori also built instruments of existing types, documented in the same 1700 inventory: a clavicytherium (upright harpsichord), and two harpsichords of the standard Italian[4] 2 x 8' disposition; one of them has an unusual case made of ebony.

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