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تابع ...Alfred the Great

King at war

Early struggles, defeat and flight

Alfred the Great plots the capture of the Danish fleet.

In April 871, King Æthelred died, and Alfred succeeded to the throne of Wessex and the burden of its defence, despite the fact that Æthelred left two under-age sons, Æthelhelm and Æthelwold. This was in accordance with the agreement that Æthelred and Alfred had made earlier that year in an assembly at Swinbeorg. The brothers had agreed that whichever of them outlived the other would inherit the personal property that King Æthelwulf in his will had left jointly to his sons. The deceased's sons would receive only whatever property and riches their father had settled upon them and whatever additional lands their uncle had acquired. The unstated premise was that the surviving brother would be king. Given the ongoing Danish invasion and the youth of his nephews, Alfred's succession probably went uncontested. Tensions between Alfred and his nephews, however, would arise later in his reign.[citation needed]
While he was busy with the burial ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the English in his absence at an unnamed spot, and then again in his presence at Wilton in May.[9] The defeat at Wilton smashed any remaining hope that Alfred could drive the invaders from his kingdom. He was forced, instead, to ‘make peace’ with them. The sources do not tell what the terms of the peace were. Bishop Asser claimed that the 'pagans' agreed to vacate the realm and made good their promise; and, indeed, the Viking army did withdraw from Reading in the autumn of 871 to take up winter quarters in Mercian London. Although not mentioned by Asser or by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Alfred probably also paid the Vikings cash to leave, much as the Mercians were to do in the following year.[10] Hoards dating to the Viking occupation of London in 871/2 have been excavated at Croydon, Gravesend, and Waterloo Bridge; these finds hint at the cost involved in making peace with the Vikings. For the next five years, the Danes occupied other parts of England.[11]
In 876 under their new leader, Guthrum, the Danes slipped past the English army and attacked and occupied Wareham in Dorset. Alfred blockaded them but was unable to take Wareham by assault.[9] Accordingly, he negotiated a peace which involved an exchange of hostages and oaths, which the Danes swore on a "holy ring" associated with the worship of Thor.[5] The Danes, however, broke their word and, after killing all the hostages, slipped away under cover of night to Exeter in Devon. There, Alfred blockaded them, and with a relief fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes were forced to submit. They withdrew to Mercia, but, in January 878, made a sudden attack on Chippenham, a royal stronghold in which Alfred had been staying over Christmas, "and most of the people they killed, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way by wood and swamp, and after Easter he made a fort at Athelney in the marshes of Somerset, and from that fort kept fighting against the foe".[5] From his fort at Athelney, an island in the marshes near North Petherton, Alfred was able to mount an effective resistance movement, rallying the local militias from Somerset, Wiltshire and Hampshire.[9]
A popular legend, originating from 12th century chronicles,[12] tells how when he first fled to the Somerset Levels, Alfred was given shelter by a peasant woman who, unaware of his identity, left him to watch some cakes she had left cooking on the fire. Preoccupied with the problems of his kingdom, Alfred accidentally let the cakes burn.
870 was the low-water mark in the history of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. With all the other kingdoms having fallen to the Vikings, Wessex alone was still resisting.[13]

Counterattack and victory

In the seventh week after Easter [4–10 May 878], around Whitsuntide, Alfred rode to ‘Egbert's Stone’ east of Selwood, where he was met by "all the people of Somerset and of Wiltshire and of that part of Hampshire which is on this side of the sea [that is, west of Southampton Water], and they rejoiced to see him".[5] Alfred’s emergence from his marshland stronghold was part of a carefully planned offensive that entailed raising the fyrds of three shires. This meant not only that the king had retained the loyalty of ealdormen, royal reeves and king’s thegns (who were charged with levying and leading these forces), but that they had maintained their positions of authority in these localities well enough to answer Alfred’s summons to war. Alfred’s actions also suggest a finely honed system of scouts and messengers.[citation needed]
Alfred won a decisive victory in the ensuing Battle of Ethandun, which may have been fought near Westbury, Wiltshire.[9] He then pursued the Danes to their stronghold at Chippenham and starved them into submission. One of the terms of the surrender was that Guthrum convert to Christianity; and three weeks later the Danish king and 29 of his chief men were baptised at Alfred's court at Aller, near Athelney, with Alfred receiving Guthrum as his spiritual son.[9] The "unbinding of the chrism" took place with great ceremony eight days later at the royal estate at Wedmore in Somerset, after which Guthrum fulfilled his promise to leave Wessex. There is no contemporary evidence that Alfred and Guthrum agreed upon a formal treaty at this time; the so-called Treaty of Wedmore is an invention of modern historians. The Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum, preserved in Old English in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (Manuscript 383), and in a Latin compilation known as Quadripartitus, was negotiated later, perhaps in 879 or 880, when King Ceolwulf II of Mercia was deposed.[15] That treaty divided up the kingdom of Mercia. By its terms the boundary between Alfred’s and Guthrum’s kingdoms was to run up the River Thames, to the River Lea; follow the Lea to its source (near Luton); from there extend in a straight line to Bedford; and from Bedford follow the River Ouse to Watling Street. In other words, Alfred succeeded to Ceolwulf’s kingdom, consisting of western Mercia; and Guthrum incorporated the eastern part of Mercia into an enlarged kingdom of East Anglia (henceforward known as the Danelaw). By terms of the treaty, moreover, Alfred was to have control over the Mercian city of London and its mints — at least for the time being.[16] The disposition of Essex, held by West Saxon kings since the days of Egbert, is unclear from the treaty, though, given Alfred’s political and military superiority, it would have been surprising if he had conceded any disputed territory to his new godson.

The quiet years; Restoration of London

With the signing of the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum, an event most commonly held to have taken place around 880 when Guthrum’s people began settling East Anglia, Guthrum was neutralised as a threat.[17] In conjunction with this agreement an army of Danish left the island and sailed to Ghent. Alfred however was still forced to contend with a number of Danish threats. A year later in 881 Alfred fought a small sea battle against four Danish ships “On the high seas”.[18] Two of the ships were destroyed and the others surrendered to Alfred’s forces.[19] Similar small skirmishes with independent Viking raiders would have occurred for much of the period as they had for decades.
In the year 883, though there is some debate over the year, King Alfred, because of his support and his donation of alms to Rome, received a number of gifts from the Pope Marinus.[20] Among these gifts was reputed to be a piece of the true cross, a true treasure for the devout Saxon king. According to Asser, because of Pope Marinus’ friendship with King Alfred, the pope granted an exemption to any Anglo-Saxons residing within Rome from tax or tribute.[21]
After the signing of the treaty with Guthrum, Alfred was spared any large-scale conflicts for some time. Despite this relative peace, the king was still forced to deal with a number of Danish raids and incursions. Among these was a raid taking place in Kent, an allied country in Southeast England, during the year 885, which was quite possibly the largest raid since the battles with Guthrum. Asser’s account of the raid places the Danish raiders at the Saxon city of Rochester,[18] where they built a temporary fortress in order to besiege the city. In response to this incursion, Alfred led an Anglo-Saxon force against the Danes who, instead of engaging the army of Wessex, fled to their beached ships and sailed to another part of Britain. The retreating Danish force supposedly left Britain the following summer.[
Not long after the failed Danish raid in Kent, Alfred dispatched his fleet to East Anglia. The purpose of this expedition is debated, though Asser claims that it was for the sake of plunder.[22] After traveling up the River Stour, the fleet was met by Danish vessels that numbered 13 or 16 (sources vary on the number) and a battle ensued.[22] The Anglo-Saxon Fleet emerged victorious and as Huntingdon accounts, “laden with spoils.”[23] The victorious fleet was then caught unaware when attempting to leave the River Stour and was attacked by a Danish force at the mouth of the river. The Danish fleet was able to defeat Alfred's fleet which may have been weakened in the previous engagement.[24]
A year later, in 886, Alfred reoccupied the city of London and set out to make it habitable again.[25] Alfred entrusted the city to the care of his son-in law Æthelred, ealdorman of Mercia. The restoration of London progressed through the later half of the 880s and is believed to have revolved around a new street plan, added fortifications in addition to the existing Roman walls, and, some believe, the construction of matching fortifications on the South bank of the River Thames.[26] This is also the period in which almost all chroniclers agree that the Saxon people of pre-unification England submitted to Alfred.[27] This was not, however, the point in which Alfred came to be known as King of England; in fact he would never adopt the title for himself. In truth the power which Alfred wielded over the English peoples at this time seemed to stem largely from the military might of the West Saxons, Alfred’s political connections from having the ruler of Mercia as his son-in-law, and Alfred’s keen administration talents.
Between the restoration of London and the resumption of large scale Danish attacks in the early 890s, Alfred’s reign was rather uneventful. The relative peace of the late 880s was marred by the death of Alfred's sister, Æthelswith, who died en route to Rome in 888.[28] In the same year the Archbishop of Canterbury, Æthelred also passed away. One year later Guthrum, or Athelstan by his baptised name, Alfred’s former enemy and king of East Anglia, died and was buried in Hadleigh, Suffolk.[29] Guthrum’s passing marked a change in the political sphere Alfred dealt with. Guthrum’s death created a power vacuum which would stir up other power–hungry warlords eager to take his place in the following years. The quiet years of Alfred’s life were coming to a close, and war was on the horizon.

[9]

02-15-2012, 09:24 AM

المشاركة 22

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تابع ...Alfred the Great

Death, burial and legacy

Alfred died on 26 October. The actual year is not certain, but it was not necessarily 901 as stated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.[5] How he died is unknown, although he suffered throughout his life with a painful and unpleasant illness – possibly Crohn's disease,[84] which seems to have been inherited by his grandson King Edred. He was originally buried temporarily in the Old Minster in Winchester, then moved to the New Minster (perhaps built especially to receive his body). When the New Minster moved to Hyde, a little north of the city, in 1110, the monks transferred to Hyde Abbey along with Alfred's body and those of his wife and children. Soon after the dissolution of the abbey in 1539, during the reign of Henry VIII, the church was demolished, leaving the graves intact.[85] The royal graves and many others were probably rediscovered by chance in 1788 when a prison was being constructed by convicts on the site. Coffins were stripped of lead, bones were scattered and lost, and no identifiable remains of Alfred have subsequently been found. Further excavations in 1866 and 1897 were inconclusive.[85][86]

A number of educational establishments are named in Alfred's honour. These include:

· The University of Winchester was named 'King Alfred's College, Winchester' between 1928 and 2004, whereupon it was re-named "University College Winchester".
· Alfred University and Alfred State College located in Alfred, NY, are both named after the king.
· In honour of Alfred, the University of Liverpool created a King Alfred Chair of English Literature.
· King Alfred's Community and Sports College, a secondary school in Wantage, Oxfordshire, the birthplace of Alfred.
· King's Lodge School, in Chippenham, Wiltshire is so named because King Alfred's hunting lodge is reputed to have stood on or near the site of the school.
· The King Alfred School & Specialist Sports Academy, Burnham Road, Highbridge is so named due to its rough proximity to Brent Knoll (a Beacon site) and Athelney.
· The King Alfred School in Barnet, North London, UK.
· King Alfred's Middle School, Shaftesbury, Dorset [Now defunct after reorganisation]
· King's College, Taunton, Somerset. (The king in question is King Alfred).

The Royal Navy has named one ship and two shore establishments HMS King Alfred.

02-16-2012, 11:31 AM

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http://www.arab-ency.com/index.php?m...rm&id=2655&m=1

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8- أنتيوخوس الثالث ( العظيم )

ملك امبراطورية سليوسيد

هو الملك أنطيوخوس الثالث الكبير ملك سورية السلوقي خلال السنوات 223 - 187 قبل الميلاد، ولقد انتصر على البطالمة المصريين في عام 202 و 198 قبل الميلاد، في المعركة التي جرت عند بانياس الجولان فصارت سورية بما فيها (سهل البقاع) والساحل الفينيقي وحوران التي كانت حدودها قد وصلت الى جبل عجلون في الأردن ملكا له.

ولكن هذا التوسع قد أخاف الإمبراطورية الرومانية التي شننت عليه حربا وهزمته عام 191 قبل الميلاد، وعلى أثر هزيمته هذه تم عقد اتفاقية سلام عام 188 قبل الميلاد خسر بموجبها جميع ممتلكاته في آسيا الصغرى غربي جبال طوروس فضعف على أثرها نفوذ الدولة السلوقية في المناطق المحيطة بالبحر الأبيض المتوسط

أنطيوخوس

أنطيوخوس Antiochos اسم مقدوني يعني «المقاوم»، تسمى به ثلاثة عشر ملكاً من ملوك الأسرة السلوقية[ر.السلوقيون] التي حكمت سورية بعد الاسكندر المقدوني، وكانت عاصمتها أنطاكية على العاصي. أسس هذه الأسرة في عام 312ق.م سلوقس الأول «نيكاتور» أي المنتصر الذي كان أحد قادة الاسكندر المقدوني المشهورين، وتمكن بعد موت الاسكندر عام 323ق.م من إقامة ملك له ولأبنائه الذين حكموا سورية حتى عام 64ق.م، إلى حين استولى الرومان عليها.
أما الملوك والحكام من الأسرة السلوقية الذين حملوا اسم أنطيوخوس وحكموا سورية فهم:
ـ أنطيوخوس الأول (سوتر) (281-261ق.م).
ـ أنطيوخوس الثاني (ثيوس) (261-246ق.م).
ـ أنطيوخوس الثالث الكبير(ميغاس) (223-187ق.م).

حروب ومعارك المملكة السلوقية

.....لم يعترف السلوقيون بسيادة البطالمة على القسم الجنوبي الغربي من الهلال الخصيب، المسمى (Coele-Syria / كل سوريا) أو سورية الجوفاء وخاضوا ضدهم سلسلة من الحروب عرفت باسم الحروب السورية (278 - 168 ق.م) لم يستطيعوا في الأربعة الأولى منها تثبيت سيادتهم العسكرية، كما حاربت الدويلات الهلنستية بعضها في الأناضول، وحارب السلوقيون مجموعات البدو البارثيين الذين نزلوا منطقة جنوب بحر قزوين وشكلوا ماعرف بدولة الأشكانيان أو الأرشيكون.
ودام أمر الحروب بعد تولي أنطيوخس الأول سوتر (281- 261 ق.م) (Antiochus I Soter) ابن سلوقس الأول، حيث تحالف مع ماجاس القوريني (Magas of Cyrene) ضد بطليموس الثاني في الحرب السورية الأولى وحقق نجاحآ محدودآ، وبعد أن قتل في إحدى المعارك ضد الكلت، وتولى بعده ابنه أنطيوخس الثاني ثيوس (Antiochus II Theos) حكم(261- 246 ق.م) الذي حصل في الحرب السورية الثانية على أجزاء من ايونيا (Ionia)، ثم تولى سلوقس الثاني كالينيكوس (Seleucus II Callinicus) حكم (246- 226 ق.م) والذي حصلت الحرب السورية الثالثة في عهده.
مع أعتلاء أنطيوخس الثالث الكبير الحكم في (123- 187 ق.م) وهو الأخ الأصغر لسلوقس الثالث كيرانوس (Seleucus III Ceraunus)، عادت الدولة السلوقية لتستعيد قوتها وتبسط سيطرتها على اجزاء واسعة، فقد أعادت السيطرة على أجزاء من الأنضول وصولاً إلى أرمينيا، وأجزاء من (كل سورية) في الحرب السورية الرابعة في معركة رفح في العام (217 ق.م) الذي واجه بها بطليموس الرابع، إلا أنه استطاع في العام (200 ق.م) السيطرة التامة على منطقة جنوب غرب الهلال الخصيب في معركة بانياس الحولة في الجولان جنوب غرب سوريا، كما وعمت سيطرت الدولة السلوقية بدأ من العام (196 ق.م) على كل آسيا الصغرى بما في ذلك المناطق الساحلية، وامتد نفوذ الدولة حتة تراقيا، مما أدى إلى المواجهه مع الرومان الذين دخلوا المنطقة اليونانية في نفس الفترة بما عرف باسم الحروب الرومية السورية (Roman-Syrian War) في القترة ما بين(192- 188 ق.م) والتي انتهت بخسارة السلوقيين في معركة ماغنسيا (Magnesia)في العام (190 ق.م) واضطر الدولة السلوقية إلى توقيع معاهدة صلح أفاميا(في فريجيا) في سوريا عام (188 ق.م) مع الجمهورية الرومية، تراجعت بموجبها الدولة السلوقية حتى كيليكيا.
بعد موت أنطيوخس الثالث (187 ق.م) استقلت الأقليم التي ضملت لدولة في عهده واقتصرت حدود الدولة السلوقية على الهلال الخصيب وغرب أيران، وبدأت الإمبراطورية الرومانية بفرض سطوتها، وكذلك الإمبراطورية الفارسية،، وعادة الأوضاع لتتحسن مع اعتلاء انطيوخوس الرابع الظاهر العرش (175-164 ق.م) حيث حدثت الحرب السورية السادسة (170 ق.م) واحتل السلوقين مصر وهزم البطالمة وتمت سيطرت الدولة السلوقية على الجزء الأكبر من مصر السفلى، وامتد حكم الدولة السلوقية في مناطق واسعة من مصر، وفي يوم إلفسينا عام (168 ق.م) ارسل مبعوث روما وتم ألأتفاق بين السلوقيين والروم وتخلى السلوقيين بموجبها عن الجزء الجنوبي، وفي طريق عودته قام بتدمير معبد أورشليم (القدس) في العام (167 ق.م) لمعاقبة اليهود الذين تحالفوا مع البطالمة ضد الدولة، وعلى أثر ذلك حدث التمردالحشموني (المكابية اليهودية) في جنوب غرب الهلال الخصيب (فلسطين) (165 ق.م)، كذلك أعاد الظاهر انطيخوس ضم أرمينا للدولة السلوقية، ومات في إحدى المعارك على الجبهة الشرقية.

02-16-2012, 11:32 AM

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8- أنتيوخوس الثالث ( العظيم )

Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC), ruler of the Seleucid Empire

Antiochus III the Great

The 6th ruler of the Seleucid Empire, Antiochus III the Great (Greek: Ἀντίoχoς Μέγας; ca. 241–187 BC, ruled 222–187 BC) Seleucid Greek king ruled over Greater Syria and western Asia towards the end of the 3rd century BC. Rising to the throne at the age of eighteen in 223 BC, his early campaigns against the Ptolemaic Kingdom were unsuccessful, but in the following years Antiochus gained several military victories.
His traditional designation, the Great, reflects an epithet he briefly assumed. He also assumed the title "Basileus Megas" (which is Greek for "Great King"), the traditional title of the Persian kings.
Self-declaring himself the "champion of Greek freedom against Roman domination", Antiochus III waged a war against the Roman Republic in mainland Greece in autumn of 192 BC[4][5] only to be defeated
Antiochus III was a member of the Greek-Macedonian Seleucid dynasty, he was the son of king Seleucus II and Laodice II and was born in 242 BC near Susa in Iran.[10] Antiochus succeeded his brother Seleucus III as the king of the Seleucid Empire.
Antiochus III inherited a disorganized state. Not only had Asia Minor become detached, but the easternmost provinces had broken away, Bactria under the Greek Diodotus of Bactria, and Parthia under the nomad chieftain Arsaces. Soon after Antiochus's accession, Media and Persis revolted under their governors, the brothers Molon and Alexander.
The young king, under the baneful influence of the minister Hermeias, authorised an attack on Ptolemaic Syria instead of going in person to face the rebels. The attack against Egypt of the Ptolemies proved a fiasco, and the generals sent against Molon and Alexander met with disaster. Only in Asia Minor, where the king's cousin, the able Achaeus represented the Seleucid cause, did its prestige recover, driving the Pergamene power back to its earlier limits.
In 221 BC Antiochus at last went east, and the rebellion of Molon and Alexander collapsed which Polybios attributes in part to his following the advice of Zeuxis‎ rather than Hermeias. The submission of Lesser Media, which had asserted its independence under Artabazanes, followed. Antiochus rid himself of Hermeias by assassination and returned to Syria (220 BC). Meanwhile Achaeus himself had revolted and assumed the title of king in Asia Minor. Since, however, his power was not well enough grounded to allow an attack on Syria, Antiochus considered that he might leave Achaeus for the present and renew his attempt on Ptolemaic Syria.

His father
Seleucus III Ceraunus
III Soter, called Seleucus Ceraunus (Greek: Σέλευκος Γ' Σωτὴρ, Σέλευκος Κεραυνός ca. 243 BC – 223 BC), was a ruler of the Hellenistic Seleucid Kingdom, the eldest son of Seleucus II Callinicus and Laodice II. His birth name was Alexander and was named after his great uncle the Seleucid official Alexander. Alexander changed his name to Seleucus after he succeeded his father as King. After a brief reign of three years (225 BC–223 BC), Seleucus was assassinated in Anatolia by members of his army while on campaign against Attalus I of Pergamon. His official byname "Soter" - Greek: Σωτὴρ means "Saviour", while his nickname "Ceraunus" - Greek: Κεραυνός means "Thunder".

Early wars against other Hellenistic rulers

The campaigns of 219 BC and 218 BC carried the Seleucid armies almost to the confines of Ptolemaic Kingdom, but in 217 BC Ptolemy IV defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Raphia. This defeat nullified all Antiochus's successes and compelled him to withdraw north of the Lebanon.
In 216 BC Antiochus' army marched into western Anatolia to suppress the local rebellion led by Antiochus' own cousin Achaeus, and had by 214 BC driven him from the field into Sardis. Capturing Achaeus, Antiochus had him executed. The citadel managed to hold out until 213 BC under Achaeus' widow Laodice who surrendered later.
Having thus recovered the central part of Asia Minor (for the Seleucid government had perforce to tolerate the dynasties in Pergamon, Bithynia and Cappadocia) Antiochus turned to recover the outlying provinces of the north and east. He obliged Xerxes of Armenia to acknowledge his supremacy in 212 BC. In 209 BC Antiochus invaded Parthia, occupied the capital Hecatompylus and pushed forward into Hyrcania. The Parthian king Arsaces II apparently successfully sued for peace.

War against Rome and death

Antiochus then moved to Asia Minor, by land and by sea, to secure the coast towns which belonged to the remnants of Ptolemaic overseas dominions and the independent Greek cities. This enterprise earned him the antagonism of the Roman Republic, since Smyrna and Lampsacus appealed to the republic of the west, and the tension grew after Antiochus had in 196 BC established a footing in Thrace. The evacuation of Greece by the Romans gave Antiochus his opportunity, and he now had the fugitive Hannibal at his court to urge him on.

In 192 BC Antiochus invaded Greece with a 10,000 man army, and was elected the commander in chief of the Aetolian League. In 191 BC, however, the Romans under Manius Acilius Glabrio routed him at Thermopylae, forcing him to withdraw to Asia Minor. The Romans followed up their success by invading Anatolia, and the decisive victory of Scipio Asiaticus at Magnesia ad Sipylum (190 BC), following the defeat of Hannibal at sea off Side, delivered Asia Minor into their hands.

By the Treaty of Apamea (188 BC) the Seleucid king abandoned all the country north of the Taurus, which the Roman Republic distributed amongst its local allies. As a consequence of this blow to the Seleucid power, the outlying provinces of the empire, recovered by Antiochus, reasserted their independence. Antiochus mounted a fresh eastern expedition in Luristan, where he died on while pillaging a temple of Bel at Elymaïs, Persia, in 187 BC.[5]

Bactrian campaign and Indian expedition

Coin of Antiochos III.

Year 209 BC saw Antiochus in Bactria, where the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I had supplanted the original rebel. Antiochus again met with success.[12] He was defeated by Antiochus at the Battle of the Arius but after sustaining a famous siege in his capital Bactra (Balkh), Euthydemus obtained an honourable peace by which Antiochus promised Euthydemus' son Demetrius the hand of one of his daughters.[13]
Antiochus next, following in the steps of Alexander, crossed into the Kabul valley, reaching the realm of Indian king Sophagasenus and returned west by way of Seistan and Kerman (206/5). According to Polybius:

"He crossed the Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus (Subhashsena in Prakrit) the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him.[13]"

Persia and Coele Syria campaigns

From Seleucia on the Tigris he led a short expedition down the Persian Gulf against the Gerrhaeans of the Arabian coast (205 BC/204 BC). Antiochus seemed to have restored the Seleucid empire in the east, which him the title of "the Great" (Antiochos Megas). In 205/204 BC the infant Ptolemy V Epiphanes succeeded to the Egyptian throne, and Antiochus is said (notably by Polybios) to have concluded a secret pact with Philip V of Macedon for the partition of the Ptolemaic possessions. Under the terms of this pact, Macedon were to receive Egypt's possessions around the Aegean Sea and Cyrene, while Antiochus would annex Cyprus and Egypt.
Once more Antiochus attacked the Ptolemaic province of Coele Syria and Phoenicia, and by 199 BC he seems to have had possession of it before the Aetolian, Scopas, recovered it for Ptolemy. But that recovery proved brief, for in 198 BC Antiochus defeated Scopas at the Battle of Panium, near the sources of the Jordan, a battle which marks the end of Ptolemaic rule in Judea.

02-16-2012, 11:34 AM

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تابع ،،،

8- أنتيوخوس الثالث ( العظيم )

Family

Coin of Antiochus the Great. The Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ, King Antiochus.
In 222 BC, Antiochus III married Princess Laodice of Pontus, a daughter of King Mithridates II of Pontus and Princess Laodice of the Seleucid Empire. The couple were first cousins through their mutual grandfather, Antiochus II Theos. Antiochus and Laodice had eight children (three sons and five daughters):
· Antiochus (221 - 193 BC), Antiochus III's first heir apparent and joint-king with his father from 210 - 193 BC
· Seleucus IV Philopator (c. 220 - 175 BC), Antiochus III's successor
· Ardys
· unnamed daughter, betrothed in about 206 BC to Demetrius I of Bactria
· Laodice IV, married all three of her brothers in succession and became Queen of the Seleucid Empire through her second and third marriages
· Cleopatra I Syra (c. 204 - 176 BC), married in 193 BC Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt
· Antiochis, married in 194 BC King Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia
· Mithridates (215 - 164 BC), succeeded his brother Seleucus IV Philopator in 175 BC under the regnal name Antiochus IV Epiphanes
Laodice III died in about 191 BC. Later that year, Antiochus III remarried to Euboea of Chalcis. They had no children. [15]
Cultural portrayals
The caroline era play Believe as You List is centered around Antiochus resistance to the Romans after the Battle of Thermopylae. The play was originally about Sebastian of Portugal surviving the Battle of Alcazar and returning, trying to gather support to return to the throne. This first version was censored for being considered "subversive" because it portrayed Sebastian being deposed, its comments in favor of an Anglo-Spanish alliance and possible pro-Catholicism, which led to the final version changing to the story of Antiochus (which led to historical innacuracy in exaggerating his defeat at that phase in history to fit the earlier text), turning Spaniards into Romans and the Catholic eremite into a stoic philosopher.

يتيم في سن الـ 18

02-16-2012, 10:38 PM

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9- الإمبراطور أشوكا (Ashoka, Asoka).العظيم

ولد عام 304 قبل الميلاد وتوفي عام 232 قبل الميلاد، وإسمه هوأشوكا فارذانا وهو إبن بندوسارا بن تشاندرا جوبتا الملك الهندي العظيم. كان أهمحكام إمبراطورية الموريين بالهند وهو من قام ببناء أعمدة أشوكا التي نقش عليهاأوامر الدولة المورينية باللغة البرهمية.

أشوكا Asoka من أعظم ملوك الهند في التاريخ، حكمبين 273-237ق.م، ينتمي إلى أسرة موريا التي حكمت البلاد بين 321 و185ق.م. وكان لهدور كبير في ترسيخ وحدة بلاد شبه القارة الهندية، وفي نشر تعاليم البوذية في الهندوخارجها.

عصر أشوكا وأسرةموريا:

عقب حملة الاسكندر المقدوني على بلاد الشرق، التياجتاح بها الامبراطورية الفارسية الأخمينية وبلاد الهند ظهرت على المسرح الهنديشخصية مهمة كان لها تأثير خطير في تاريخ الهند القديم: شاندرا غوبتا (ساندرا كوتوسعند المؤلفين الإغريق الكلاسيكيين). ولا يعرف أصل هذا الرجل على وجه الدقة، لكنهاستطاع أن يؤسس نحو عام 321ق.م أسرة حاكمة في الهند هي أسرة موريا، التي كان أشوكاأشهر ملوكها.

امتدت مملكة شاندرا غوبتا، التي كان ظهورها رداًعلى الغزو المقدوني ـ الهلّيني، من وادي السند (الهندوس) إلى بلاد البنغال، ومنجبال هيمالايا شمالاً إلى جبال بانديا، وأقيمت أسس الدولة على هدي التعاليمالبراهمانية الهندوسية، وبمساعدة واحد من أعظم حكماء الهند هو الوزير كوتيليا، صاحبأقدم رسالة في السياسة (أرتاشاسترا)، تحدث فيها عن مستلزمات نظام الدولة، وعنالاقتصاد والضرائب وأصول الحكم.

ونمت إبان حكم هذه الأسرة العلاقات التجاريةوالحضارية والثقافية مع دول المشرق التي كانت تحكمها أسرات حاكمة هلينية في سوريةومصر، في حين نهض الإيرانيون في وجه النفوذ الهليني بتأسيس المملكة الفرثية فيأواسط القرن الثالث ق.م.

خلف شاندرا غوبتا بعد موته ابنه الذي تذكره المصادراليونانية باسم «أميتروخاتس» Amithrochates، نقلاً عن السنسكريتية «أميتراغاتا» Amithraghata، أي محارب الأعداء. ويظن أن هذا اللقب يظهر الدور الحربي للعاهل الذيتذكره المصادر البوذية باسمه: «بندوسارا» أو «بدرا سارا» أو «ناندا سارا»، وهو والدأشوكا. ولا يعرف عن حياته إلا القليل.

تطورت العلاقات الدبلوماسية في أيام بندو سارا بينالهند من جهة والمملكة السورية السلوقية في أيام سلوقس الأول نيكاتور، والمملكةالمصرية البطلمية في حكم بطلميوس الثاني فيلادلفوس من جهة أخرى. وتتحدث الوثائق عنتبادل السفارات بين هذه الدول، الأمر الذي ترك أثراً عميقاً في تنمية العلاقاتالتجارية وفي تبادل المؤثرات الفنية والثقافية.

حُكمأشوكا:

ولد أشوكا في بيتاليبوترا. وتلقى تعليماً ممتازاًمدة عشر سنوات قبل أن يعهد إليه والده في مهمات للمشاركة في حمل أعباء المُلك معه،واكتسب خبرة في إدارة المملكة إذ كان نائباً للملك في عدد من المقاطعات. وعند موتأبيه لم يكن أحقَّ أخوته بالوراثة ولكنه كان أفضلهم بما كسبه من خبرة إدارية ومنتأييد الوزير القوي رادغوبتا. فعمل جاهداً على المحافظة على وحدة المملكة وسعى إلىتوسيع حدودها، وإلى إقامة علاقات طيبة بين الحاكم والرعية.

ولكن احتلال أشوكا منطقة كالينغا (أوريسا اليوم) فيبلاد البنغال عام 261ق.م لبسط سيطرة أسرة موريا عليها، كان منعطفاً تاريخياً فيحياته، فقد حوّل الحدث العاهل المحارب الفاتح إلى رسول للتسامح والأخوّة الإنسانية،بعد أن فُجع بوقائع الحروب وآلامها وآثارها المأسوية على الناس. وهكذا تعزَّز لديهالإيمان بالتعاليم الدينية الهندية التي تدعو إلى احترام الحياة بكل صورها، فاعتنقالتعاليم البوذية بلا تعصب من دون أن يتخلى عن كل شيء في الديانة البرهمية ومن دونأن ينكر معتقدات الآخرين. وعمل أشوكا في سياسته الحازمة على تطوير توجهات البوذية،ومهّد لجعلها ديانة عالمية بإرسال الدعاة إلى أنحاء البلاد: إلى كشمير وسري لانكةوشرقي الهند. وتدل الوثائق الهلنستية على أن البوذية كانت معروفة في أنطاكية وفيالإسكندرية منذ ذلك العصر.

استطاع أشوكا بسياسته الحكيمة والبصيرة أن يوحد تحتحكمه كل شبه القارة الهندية، باستثناء أسّام في أقصى الشمال والدكّن (موطن التامولأو التاميل) في أقصى الجنوب. وكان من أكثر رجال الدولة نجاحاً في الربط بين الأخلاقوالسياسة، بالتوفيق بين المثالية في تعاليم بوذا والوصولية في سياسة كوتيليا الذييماثل في الثقافة الهندية مكيافيلّي في الثقافة الغربية الأوربية.

مآثر أشوكاوتعاليمه:

اهتم أشوكا بتنظيم الإدارة، وعمل على تبادلالمسؤوليات دورياً بين كبار المسؤولين بصورة يتمكنون بها من التمرس بمسؤولياتالإدارة واكتساب خبرة واسعة وعلى أفضل وجه. وعيّن موظفين، ذارما ماهاماترا (أنصارالحق)، أوكلت إليهم مسؤولية نُصرة الحق (ذارما) على القوة (داندا)، كالمراقبينالذين كان لهم نفوذ واسع في الامبراطورية الرومانية، والمحتسب في الدولة العربيةالإسلامية.

وعلى عهد هذا العاهل الهندي بُذل جهد كبير لحمايةطرق المواصلات ولرعاية المسافرين بغرس الأشجار على امتداد طرق القوافل، وببناءالاستراحات والمحطات وبتهيئة الملاجئ والمآوي. وأمر بنقش تعاليمه على مسلاّت حجريةنشرت في مناطق عدة، أو على جرف الصخور للتبشير بتعاليم الهند وبفكر عاهلها الكبيرالذي وصف في الوثائق القديمة بالمحبوب والتقيّ والناسك والعادل. وتدل هذه الألقابعلى ما حظي به اسمه من مرتبة عظيمة بين ملوك الهند القديمة.

تفرد أشوكا في تاريخ الهند بالجمع بين السلطاتالزمنية والسلطات الروحية. وكان شديد الاقتناع بقيمه الأخلاقية ويعدّ نفسه حاملاًلرسالة الدعوة إليها ويأتي في مقدمتها نبذ العنف، والعدل بينالناس.

ومن أكثر أقواله التصاقاً بشخصه: «كل الناس أبنائي، وليس من واجب على المرء أسمى من العمل لخير الإنسانية كلها». وهي من التعاليم التي دعا إليها المهاتما غاندي صانع الهند الحديثة

02-16-2012, 10:40 PM

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تابع ....اشوكا

Ashoka

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Ashoka

Maurya Samrat

A "Chakravartin" ruler, first century BC/CE. Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati. Preserved at Musee Guimet
Reign
274–232 BC
Coronation
270 BC
Titles
Samraat Chakravartin; other titles include Devanampriya and Priyadarsin
Born
304 BC
Birthplace
Pataliputra, Patna
Died
232 BC (aged 72)
Place of death
Pataliputra, Patna
Buried
Ashes immersed in the Ganges River, possibly at Varanasi, Cremated 232 BC, less than 24 hours after death
Predecessor
Bindusara
Successor
Dasaratha Maurya
Consort
Maharani Devi
Wives
Rani Tishyaraksha
Rani Padmavati
Rani Kaurwaki
Offspring
Mahendra, Sanghamitra, Teevala, Kunala
Royal House
Mauryan dynasty
Father
Bindusara
Mother
Rani Dharma or Shubhadrangi
Religious beliefs
Buddhism

Ashoka (Devanāgarī: अशोक, IAST: Aśoka, IPA: [aˈɕoːkə], ca. 304–232 BC), also known as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from ca. 269 BC to 232 BC.[1] One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire stretched from present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan in the west, to the present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east, and as far south as northern Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. He conquered the kingdom named Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had conquered starting from Chandragupta Maurya. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar). He embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. Ashoka was a devotee of ahimsa (nonviolence), love, truth, tolerance and vegetarianism. Ashoka is remembered in history as a philanthropic administrator. In the history of India, Ashoka is referred to as Samraat Chakravartin Ashoka – the "Emperor of Emperors Ashoka".
His name "aśoka" means "painless, without sorrow" in Sanskrit (the a privativum and śoka "pain, distress"). In his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "The Beloved Of The Gods"), and Priyadarśin (Pali Piyadasī or "He who regards everyone with affection").
Along with the Edicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the later 2nd-century Aśokāvadāna ("Narrative of Asoka") and Divyāvadāna ("Divine narrative"), and in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle").
Ashoka played a critical role in helping make Buddhism a world religion.[2] As the peace-loving ruler of one of the world's largest, richest and most powerful multi-ethnic states, he is considered an exemplary ruler, who tried to put into practice a secular state ethic of non-violence. The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka.

Biography
Early life
Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and his queen, Dharmā [or Dhammā]. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of Mauryan dynasty.
Ashokāvadāna states that his mother was a queen named Subhadrangī, the daughter of Champa of Telangana. Queen Subhadrangī was a Brahmin of the Ajivika sect. Sage Pilindavatsa (aias Janasana) was a kalupaga Brahmin of the Ajivika sect had found Subhadrangī as a suitable match for Emperor Bindusara.
A palace intrigue دسسسهkept her away from the king. This eventually ended, and she bore a son. It is from her exclamation "I am now without sorrow", that Ashoka got his name. The Divyāvadāna tells a similar story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī.
هناك اختلاف على اسم الام ويبدو ان والده كان له عد هائل من الزوجات ويقال انه قتل 99 من اخوته غير الاشقاء لكي يصل الى الحكم
Ashoka had several elder siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from other wives of Bindusāra.
He had been given the royal military training knowledge.
تم تدريبه التدريب الملكي العسكري
He was a fearsome hunter, and according to a legend, killed a lion with just a wooden rod.
كات صيادا لا يخاف ويقال انه قتل اسد بعصا
He was very adventurous and a trained fighter, who was known for his skills with the sword. Because of his reputation as a frightening warrior and a heartless general, he was sent to curb the riots in the Avanti province of the Mauryan empire.
Rise to power
Maurya Empire at the age of Ashoka. The empire stretched from Afghanistan to Bangladesh/Assam and from Central Asia (Afghanistan) to Tamil Nadu/South India.
The Divyavandana talks of Ashoka putting down a revolt due to activities of wicked ministers. This may have been an incident in Bindusara's times.
قاد حملة للقضاء على تمرد قام به بعض الوزراء ويعتقد ان ذلك تم في زمن والده
Taranatha's account states that Chanakya, one of Bindusara's great lords, destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made himself the master of all territory between the eastern and the western seas. Some historians consider this as an indication of Bindusara's conquest of the Deccan while others consider it as suppression of a revolt. Following this, Ashoka was stationed at Ujjayini as governor.
Bindusara's death in 273 BC led to a war over succession.
مات والده عام 273 قبل الميلاد ولذلك اندلعت حرب على وراثته
According to Divyavandana, Bindusara wanted his son Sushim to succeed him but Ashoka was supported by his father's ministers. A minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an important role. Ashoka managed to become the king by getting rid of the legitimate heir to the throne, by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals.
لقد تخلص اشوكا من الزريث الشرعي للحكم بخداعه وذلك بمساعدة احد الوزراء واستولى على الجكم
The Dipavansa and Mahavansa refer to Ashoka killing 99 of his brothers, sparing only one, named Tissa,
وتقول كتب التاريخ بأنه قتل 99 من اخوته وترك واحد فقد يعيش اسمه تيسا
although there is no clear proof about this incident. The coronation happened in 269 BC, four years after his succession to the throne.
توج عام 269 بعد اربع ة سنوات من موت والده
Early life as Emperor
Ashoka is said to have been of a wicked nature and bad temper. He submitted his ministers to a test of loyalty and had 500 of them killed. He also kept a harem of around 500 women. When a few of these women insulted him, he had the whole lot of them burnt to death. He also built hell on earth, an elaborate and horrific torture chamber. This torture chamber earned him the name of Chand Ashoka (Sanskrit), meaning Ashoka the Fierce.[5]
Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, from the present-day boundaries and regions of Burma–Bangladesh and the state of Assam in India in the east to the territory of present-day Iran / Persia and Afghanistan in the west; from the Pamir Knots in the north almost to the peninsular of southern India (i.e. Tamil Nadu / Andhra Pradesh).[5]

02-16-2012, 10:42 PM

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Conquest of Kalinga
While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teaching after his conquest of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day states of Orissa and North Coastal Andhra Pradesh. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma. Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and Kshatriya dharma. The Kalinga War happened eight years after his coronation. From his 13th inscription, we come to know that the battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000 soldiers and many civilians who rose up in defense; over 150,000 were deported.[7] When he was walking through the grounds of Kalinga after his conquest, rejoicing in his victory, he was moved by the number of bodies strewn there and the wails of the kith and kin of the dead.
Death and legacy

The Junagadh rock contains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradaman I and Skandagupta.
Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years. After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time. Mahindra and Sanghamitra were twins born by his first wife, Devi, in the city of Ujjain. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across the known and the unknown world. Mahindra and Sanghamitra went into Sri Lanka and converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism. They were naturally not handling state affairs after him.
In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got his son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila, blinded by a wily stratagem. The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka hears Kunala's song, and realizes that Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself and condemns Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the court. Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati, but his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death.
The reign of Ashoka Maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have had he not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. The language used for inscription was the then current spoken form called Prakrit.
In the year 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brhadrata, was assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BC-78 BC) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom.
In 1992, Ashoka was ranked #53 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history. In 2001, a semi-fictionalized portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture under the title Asoka. King Ashoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, has come to be regarded as one of the most exemplary rulers in world history. The British historian H.G. Wells has written: "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Asoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star."