أعظم 50 عبقري عبر التاريخ : ما سر هذه العبقرية؟ دراسة بحثية - الصفحة 3

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Daniel Tammet
- Daniel Tammet is a high-functioning autistic savant. He has been gifted with a knack for mathematics, language learning, and above average memorization skills. He was featured on a discovery channel special that tested his abilities and showed his ability to learn arguably the toughest language, Icelandic, in less than 7 days to appear in an interview. Daniel has an incredible brain and was gifted with an above-average intellect.
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Daniel Tammet (born on 31 January 1979) is a British writer and autistic savant. His best selling 2006 memoir, Born on a Blue Day, about his life with high-functioning autism and savant syndrome, was named a "Best Book for Young Adults" in 2008 by the American Library Association.[1]
Tammet's second book, Embracing the Wide Sky, was described as one of France's best selling books of 2009 by L'Express magazine in its March 2010 edition.
Thinking in Numbers, Tammet's third book, was published by Hodder in the UK on 16 August 2012.
Tammet's books have been published in 20 languages.

Biography

Early life

Tammet was born Daniel Paul Corne and raised in East London, England, the eldest of nine children. He suffered epileptic seizures as a young child, which he subsequently outgrew following medical treatment.
At age twenty-five, he was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome by Professor Simon Baron-Cohen of the Autism (Spectrum) Research Centre at Cambridge University.[5] Tammet is one of fewer than a hundred "prodigious savants" according to Dr. Darold Treffert, the world's leading researcher in the study of savant syndrome.[
Tammet finished school with nine GCSEs (an 'A*' in History, 'A' grades in English, English Literature, French, and German, two 'B' grades in the Sciences, a 'B' in Maths, and a 'C' in Woodwork)[7] and three A-Levels in History, French and German, all at grade 'B'.[8]
Preferring travel to university, Tammet taught English for a year in Lithuania.
Tammet twice participated in the World Memory Championships in London under his birth name, placing 12th in 1999 and 4th in 2000.
He changed his birth name by deed poll because "it didn't fit with the way he saw himself."
In 2002 Tammet launched his website, Optimnem. The site offers language courses (currently French and Spanish) and has been an approved member of the U.K.'s National Grid for Learning since 2006.[7]
Tammet was the subject of a documentary film entitled (in the UK) The Boy with the Incredible Brain, first broadcast on the British television station Channel 4 on 23 May 2005.

Savantism

Tammet has been "studied repeatedly" by researchers in Britain and the United States, and has been the subject of several peer-reviewed scientific papers. Professor Allan Snyder at the Australian National University has said of Tammet: "Savants can't usually tell us how they do what they do. It just comes to them. Daniel can describe what he sees in his head. That's why he's exciting. He could be the 'Rosetta Stone'."
In his mind, he says, each positive integer up to 10,000 has its own unique shape, colour, texture and feel. He has described his visual image of 289 as particularly ugly, 333 as particularly attractive, and pi as beautiful. The number 6 apparently has no distinct image yet what he describes as an almost small nothingness, opposite to the number 9 which he calls large and towering.[7][14] In his memoir, Tammet states experiencing a synaesthetic and emotional response for numbers and words.[15]
Tammet holds the European record for reciting pi from memory to 22,514 digits in five hours and nine minutes on 14 March 2004.
Tammet has reportedly learned 10 languages, including Romanian, Gaelic, Welsh, and Icelandic which he learned in a week for a TV documentary.

Career

Born on a Blue Day, Tammet's memoir of a life with Asperger's syndrome, received international media attention and critical praise. Booklist's Ray Olson stated that Tammet's autobiography was "as fascinating as Benjamin Franklin's and John Stuart Mill's" and that Tammet wrote "some of the clearest prose this side of Hemingway". Kirkus stated that the book "transcends the disability memoir genre".
For his U.S. book tour, he appeared on several television and radio talk shows and specials, including 60 Minutes and Late Show with David Letterman.[7] In February 2007 Born on a Blue Day was serialised as BBC Radio 4's Book of the Week in the United Kingdom.
Tammet's second book, Embracing the Wide Sky was published in 2009. Professor Allan Snyder, director of Sydney University's Centre for the Mind, called the work 'an extraordinary and monumental achievement'.
Tammet argues that savant abilities are not "supernatural" but are "an outgrowth" of "natural, instinctive ways of thinking about numbers and words".
He suggests that the brains of savants can, to some extent, be retrained, and that normal brains could be taught to develop some savant abilities

دانيال بول تاميت (بالإنكليزية: Daniel Paul Tammet) (ولد في 31 يناير 1979 في لندن، إنكلترا) هو نابغة بريطاني لديه قدرة فائقة في تعلم الرياضيات واللغات الطبيعية. هو أول تسعة أبناء لعائلة متوسطة الدخل تعيش في لندن.
كان مصابا بالتوحد في صغره. في كتابه "مولود في يوم أزرق"، يصف تاميت كيف أثرت إصابته بالصرع والمحاسة ومتلازمة آسبرغر على سنوات طفولته.

قدراته

تاميت يملك الرقم القياسي الأوروبي لعد ثابت الرياضيات باي إلى 22,514 رقما عشريا في خمس ساعات وتسع دقائق،[1] كما أنه يستطيع التحدث بإحدى عشر لغة هي الإنكليزية، الفرنسية، الفنلندية، الألمانية، الإسبانية، الليتوانية، الرومانية، الإستونية، الآيسلندية، الويلزية، والإسبرانتو، وهو يقوم الآن بابتكار لغة مصطنعة جديدة تدعى منتي.

حياته الشخصية

تاميت يعيش مع صديقه مهندس البرمجيات نيل ميتشيل منذ عام 2001 في منزلهما في كنت ويديران معا شركة تعليم إلكتروني تدعى أوبتيمنم (Optimnem). تاميت سبق وأن ناقش العلاقة المثلية التي تربطه مع ميتشيل.

كان مصابا بالتوحد في صغره. في كتابه "مولود في يوم أزرق"، يصف تاميت كيف أثرت إصابته بالصرع والمحاسة ومتلازمة آسبرغر على سنوات طفولته.

اصيب في الطفولة بنوبات صرع كما انه شخص على انه مصاب بالتوحد ومتلازمة اسبرغر.

09-13-2012, 08:24 AM

المشاركة 22

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا

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William Shakespeare

- William Shakespeare was a poet, playwright, and has been hailed “the greatest writer” in the English language and the worlds best dramatist. He has been deemed the national poet of England and his works include: nearly 40 plays, around 150 sonnets, and 2 long poems. Shakespeare’s plays have been translated into every language, and are performed more often than any other playwright. Shakespeare shed his genius-like thoughts through his complex storytelling.

William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, d 1601 an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, d 1608 the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer.[7] He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual birthdate remains unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, St George's Day. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholar's mistake, has proved appealing to biographers, since Shakespeare died 23 April 1616. He was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son.[10]

Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King's New School in Stratford, a free school chartered in 1553, about a quarter-mile from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but the grammar curriculum was standardised by royal decree throughout England, and the school would have provided an intensive education in Latin grammar based upon Latin classical authors.

John Shakespeare's house, believed to be Shakespeare's birthplace, in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582.

ويليام شكسبير (1564 ـ 1616) كبير الشعراء الإنكليز. كان ممثلاً ومؤلفاً مسرحياً. سبر في مسرحياته أغوار النفس البشرية، وحلّلها في بناء متساوق جعلها أشبه شيء بالسيمفونيات الشعرية. من أشهر آثاره الكوميدية كوميديا الأخطاء (1592/1593) وتاجر البندقية (1596/1597). ومن أشهر آثاره التراجيدية روميو وجوليت (1594/1595)، ويوليوس قيصر (1599/1600) وهاملت (1600/1601)، وعطيل (1604/1605)، ومكبث (1605/1606)، والملك لير (1605/1606 أيضاً).

حياته

يعد شكسبير من أبرز الشخصيات في الأدب العالمي إن لم يكن أبرزها على الإطلاق. يصعب تحديد عبقريته بمعيار بعينه من معايير النقد الأدبي. وإن كانت حكمته التي وضعها على لسان شخصيات رواياته خالدة في كل زمان. هناك تكهنات وروايات عديدة عن حقيقة شخصيته التي يكتنفها الغموض والإبهام. وعن حياته التي لا يعرف عنها إلا القدر اليسير.
والثابت أن أباه كان رجلاً له مكانته في المجتمع، وكانت أمه من عائلة ميسورة الحال. وقيل إنه بلغ حداً من التعليم، مكنه من التدريس في بلدته ستراتفورد – أون – آفون التي يوجد بها الآن مسرح يسمى باسمه، يقوم بالتمثيل على خشبته أكبر الممثلين المتخصصين في رواياته. ومن الثابت أيضاً أنه تزوج من آن هاثاواي، وأنجب منها ثلاثة أطفال، وفي 1588 انتقل إلى لندن وربط حياته بالمسرح هناك. وفي 1589 أخرجت أولى مسرحياته وهي أما مسرحية كوميديا الأخطاء أو الجزء الأول من مسرحية هنري السادس. وفي 1599 اشترك في إدارة مسرح جلوب الشهير. وقد كان شكسبير رجل عصره على الرغم من عالمية فنه إذ تأثر إلى حد بعيد بمعاصريه من كتاب المسرح مثل توماس كيد وكريستوفر مارلو، وخاطب مثلهم الذوق الشعبي في عصره وهو الذوق الذي كان يهوى المآسي التاريخية بما فيها من عنف ومشاهد دامية. كما كان يهوى المشاهد الهزلية ذات الطابع المكشوف التي كانت تتخلل المسرحيات التراجيدية لتخفف من حدة وقعها. غير أن شكسبير هذب القصص التي نقلها عن المؤرخ هوليتشد لتاريخ إنجلترا واسكتلندا كما هو الحال في مسرحيات ماكبث، والملك لير، وسمبلين، وريتشارد الثالث، وعن المؤرخ الروماني بلوتارك كما في مسرحية أنطونيو وكليوباترا. وأضاف إلى ذلك كله عمق تحليله للنفس البشرية، فضلاً عن شاعريته الفياضة في تصوير المواقف التاريخية والعاطفية الخالدة حتى جعل من المسرح الإنجليزي فناً عالمياً رفيعاً. ومن المتفق عليه بين معظم الباحثين والدارسين أن 38 من المسرحيات لا يشكل في نسبتها إليه، وأن مراحل إنتاجه الأدبي يمكن تقسيمها إلى مراحل أربع: أولها (1590 – 1594) وتحوى مجموعة من المسرحيات التاريخية منها كوميديا الأخطاء، وهنري السادس وتيتوس اندرونيكوس، والسيدان من فيرونا وجهد الحب الضائع والملك جون، وريتشارد الثالث، وترويض النمرة والأخيرتان ترجمتا إلى العربية، والثانية هي المرحلة الغنائية (1595 – 1600) وتشتمل على معظم قصائده الشهيرة وبعض مسرحياته الخفيفة مثل ريتشارد الثاني وحلم منتصف ليلة صيف وتاجر البندقية التي ترجمت جميعاً إلى العربية مع بعض روائعه الشهيرة مثل روميو وجوليت، وهنري الخامس، ويوليوس قيصر، وكما تهواه وقد ترجمت جميعاً إلى العربية. ومن مسرحيات هذه المرحلة كذلك زوجات وندسور المرحات وضجيج ولا طحن، أما المرحلة الثالثة (1600 – 1608) فهي أهم المراحل على الإطلاق، إذ تمثل نضوجه الفني، فقد كتب فيها أعظم مسرحياته التراجيدية مثل هاملت، وعطيل، والملك لير وماكبث وأنتوني وكليوباترا، وبركليز وكريولينس ودقة بدقة وقد ترجم معظمها إلى العربية. ومنها ما ترجم أكثر من مرة، ومنها ما بلغ عدد ترجماته العشرة مثل هاملت. ومن مسرحيات هذه المرحلة أيضاً تيمون الأثيني. وخير ما انتهى بخير. ثم تأتي المرحلة الرابعة (1609 – 1613) التي اختتم بها حياته الفنية وقد اشتملت على مسرحيات هنري الثامن، والعاصفة مما ترجم إلى العربية، وعلى مسرحيتي قصة الشتاء وسمبلين. وفي هذه المرحلة نجد العواصف النفسية العنيفة وقد خبت وتحولت في نفس الشاعر إلى نظرة تقبل ورضى وأمل وتأمل
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نسب بعض النقاد المتقدمين مؤلفاته إلى آخرين منهم الفيلسوف فرانسيس بيكون، ومنهم أيرل أكسفورد السابع عشر. وقال آخرون إنه من أصل عربي وإن اسمه جاء تحريفاً لاسم الشيخ زبير.وكلها أقوال لم تثبت بالأدلة القاطعة والمقنعه ولم يقم عليها الدليل العلمي وإن كانت هناك بحوث كثيرة في هذا الصدد. ولقد اشترك كثير من كبار الشعراء في القرنين 18، 19 في جمع مسرحياته ونقدها وإن اختلفت وجهات النظر وتعددت أساليب النقد. ففي القرن 18 اعترض كتاب من أمثال جون درايدن وألكسندر بوب على ما اعتبروه إسراف شكسبير في الخيال والتعبير، أما شعراء القرن 19 من أمثال صامويل تايلر كولريدج فقد أعطوا الشاعر الكبير حق قدره. وكذلك الحال بالنسبة إلى نقاد القرن 20 من أمثال ت. س. إليوت ممن أكدوا عالمية فنه وخلود أدبه. هذا وقد كان لشكسبير أثره الكبير في آداب جميع الأمم على الإطلاق، وتأثر به جميع الكتاب والشعراء والأدباء في كل البلدان وفي كل العصور في القارة الأوروبية وفي الأمريكتين وفي غير ذلك من القارات في القرن 17، 18، 19، وفي غير ذلك من القرون. أما في الأدب العربي فقد تأثر به كثير من الأدباء، وترجمت معظم مسرحياته وقدمت في المسرح والسينما والإذاعة، وكان لإدارة الثقافة بجامعة الدول العربية في الأيام الأخيرة فضل القيام بترجمة جميع مؤلفاته تلك التي صدر منها حتى الآن 12 مسرحية، وهي بصدد إصدار باقي مسرحياته حسب ترتيبها التاريخي.
هناك كثير من الجدل حوله وحول طفولته وشخصيته ولا يمكن الا اعتباره مجهول الطفولة رغم ان بعض المصادر تشير الى ان والديه عاشا الى سن متأخره. اي انه ليس يتيم حسب بعض المصادر.

مجهول الطفولة.

09-13-2012, 08:26 AM

المشاركة 23

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا

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Kim Peek

- Though Kim Peek is a savant, he has some exceptional brain abilities. He is lacking a functional corpus callosum (which makes it impossible for his right and left brain hemispheres to exchange information) and has a damaged cerebellum. Without a corpus callosum, some develop above average memory abilities. In Kim Peek’s case, he can read a new book in about 1 hour and manages to retain over 98% of the information within the book! Impressive.

==

Laurence Kim Peek (November 11, 1951 – December 19, 2009) was an American savant. Known as a "megasavant", he had an exceptional memory, but he also experienced social difficulties, possibly resulting from a developmental disability related to congenital brain abnormalities. He was the inspiration for the character of Raymond Babbitt, played by Dustin Hoffman in the movie Rain Man. Unlike Babbitt, Peek had FG syndrome.

Early life

Peek was born in Salt Lake City, Utah with macrocephaly, damage to the cerebellum, and agenesis of the corpus callosum, a condition in which the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain is missing; in Peek's case, secondary connectors such as the anterior commissure were also missing. There is speculation that his neurons made unusual connections due to the absence of a corpus callosum, which resulted in an increased memory capacity. According to Peek's father, Fran Peek, Kim was able to memorize things from the age of 16–20 months. He read books, memorized them, and then placed them upside down on the shelf to show that he had finished reading them, a practice he maintained. He could speed through a book in about an hour and remember almost everything he had read, memorizing vast amounts of information in subjects ranging from history and literature, geography and numbers to sports, music and dates. According to an article in The Times newspaper, he could accurately recall the contents of at least 12,000 books. Peek lived in Murray, Utah.
Peek did not walk until the age of four and then in a sidelong manner.[ He could not button up his shirt and had difficulty with other ordinary motor skills, presumably due to his damaged cerebellum, which normally coordinates motor activities. In psychological testing, Peek scored below average (87) on general IQ tests.

Rain Man

In 1984, screenwriter Barry Morrow met Peek in Arlington, Texas; the result of the meeting was the 1988 movie Rain Man. The character of Raymond Babbitt, although inspired by Peek, was portrayed as having autism. Dustin Hoffman, who played Babbitt, met Peek and other savants to get an understanding of their nature and to play the role accurately and methodically. The movie caused a number of requests for appearances, which increased Peek's self-confidence. Barry Morrow gave Kim his Oscar statuette to carry with him and show at these appearances; it has since been referred to as the "Most Loved Oscar Statue" as it has been held by more people than any other. Kim also enjoyed approaching strangers and showing them his talent for calendar calculations by telling them on which day of the week they were born and what news items were on the front page of major newspapers. Peek also appeared on television. He travelled with his father, who took care of him and performed many motor tasks that Peek found difficult

Kim : the Idiot Savant

وهذا

اعاقة عقلية كبيرة تتمثل في عدم وجود اعصاب تربط بين فصي الدماغ.

09-13-2012, 01:35 PM

المشاركة 24

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا

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Ludwig van Beethoven
- Beethoven was a German pianist and legendary musician. He was very influential in Western classical music and is thought of as the best composer of all time. Though Beethoven’s hearing began to cease in his early twenties, he was still able to create classical masterpieces. He was able to conduct, compose, and perform music even after he was completely deaf! Beethoven blessed the world with his musical genius and brilliant mind.
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لودفيج فان بيتهوفن (بالألمانية: Ludwig van Beethoven) مؤلف موسيقي ألماني ولد في 1770 ورحل في 1827 كانت ولادته في مدينة بون. يعتبر من أبرز عباقرة الموسيقى في جميع العصور، وأبدع أعمالاً موسيقية خالدة. له الفضل الأعظم في تطوير الموسيقى الكلاسيكية. قدم أول عمل موسيقي وعمره 8 أعوام.
تشمل مؤلفاته للأوركسترا تسـعة سيمفونيات وخمس مقطوعات موسيقية على البيانو ومقطوعة على الكمان. كما ألّف العديد من المقطوعات الموسيقية كمقدمات للأوبرا.
بدأ بيتهوفن يفقد سمعه في الثلاثينيات من عمره إلا أن ذلك لم يؤثر على إنتاجه الذي ازداد في تلك الفترة وتميز بالإبداع. من أجمل أعماله السمفونية الخامسة والسادسة والتاسعة. وقد توفي في فيينا سنة 1827م.

حياته

Ludwig van Beethoven

شهدت مدينة بون الألمانية ميلاد الفنان العبقري لودفج فان بيتهوفن في 16 ديسمبر سنة 1770، وتم تعميده في 17 ديسمبر 1770. ظهر تميزه الموسيقي منذ صغره، فنشرت أولى أعماله وهو في الثانية عشر من عمره سنة 1783 ميلادية. اتسعت شهرته كعازف بيانو في سن مبكرة، ثم زاد إنتاجه وذاع صيته كمؤلف موسيقى. عانى بيتهوفن كثيراً في حياته، عائلياً وصحياً، فبالرغم من أن أباه هو معلمه الأول الذي وجه اهتمامه للموسيقى ولقنه العزف على البيانو والكمان، إلا أنه لم يكن الأب المثالي، فقد كان مدمناً للكحول، كما أن والدته توفيت وهو في السابعة عشر من عمره بعد صراع طويل مع المرض، تاركة له مسؤولية العائلة. مما منعه من إتمام خطته والسفر إلى فيينا، عاصمة الموسيقى في ذلك العصر. فكان التأليف الموسيقي هو نوع من أنواع العلاج والتغلب على المشاكل بالنسبة لبيتهوفن.

حياته في فيينا عاصمة الموسيقى

في 1789 ميلادية تحقق حلمه أخيراً، فقد أرسله حاكم بون إلى فيينا، وهناك تتلمذ على يد هايدن. ولكن بيتهوفن، صاحب الألحان واجه بعض الخلافات مع معلمه، وعندما سافر هايدن إلى لندن، تحول بيتهوفن إلى معلمين آخرين مثل ساليري وشينك وألبريشتبيرجر. وقد أسهمت كل هذه الدروس والاحتكاكات في تكوين شخصية بيتهوفن الفنية. وحاول أن يشق لنفسه طريق كعازف في عاصمة الموسيقى، وسرعان ما لقى مكانة كبرى خاصة في الأوساط الأرستقراطية. فقد حاز على إعجاب الأسرة الملكية وعومل كصديق أكثر منه مؤلفاً. بالرغم من ذلك فقد عاش ومات فقيراً، غناه هو أعماله الفنية المتميزة.

صمم بيتهوفن والتحول الكبير في شخصيته

بدأت إصابة بيتهوفن بالصمم، فبدأ في الانسحاب من الأوساط الفنية تدريجياً، وأمضى حياته بلا زواج يرتبط بعدة علاقات عاطفية. إلا أنه لم يتوقف عن الإنتاج الفني، ولكن أعماله اتخذت اتجاه جديد. ومع ازدياد حالة الصمم التي أصابته، امتنع عن العزف في الحفلات العامة، وابتعد عن الحياة الاجتماعية واتجه للوحدة، وقلت مؤلفاته، وأصبحت أكثر تعقيداً. حتى أنه رد على انتقادات نقاده بأنه يعزف للأجيال القادمة. وبالفعل ما زالت أعماله حتى اليوم من أهم ما أنتجته الموسيقى الكلاسيكية العالمية. واكتسبت اثنان من السيمفونيات التي كتبها في صممه أكبر شعبية، وهما السيمفونية الخامسة والتاسعة. كما أنه أحدث الكثير من التغييرات في الموسيقى، وأدخل الغناء والكلمات في سيمفونيته التاسعة. فجاءت رسالته إلى العالم "كل البشر سيصبحون إخوة".

==
Ludwig van Beethoven (i /ˈ l ʊ d v ɪ ɡ v æn ˈ b eɪ t .h oʊ v ən /; German: [ˈluːtvɪç fan ˈbeːt.hoːfən] (listen); baptized 17 December 1770[1] – 26 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers. His best known compositions include 9 symphonies, 5 concertos for piano, 32 piano sonatas, and 16 string quartets. He also composed other chamber music, choral works (including the celebrated Missa Solemnis), and songs.
Born in Bonn, then the capital of the Electorate of Cologne and part of the Holy Roman Empire, Beethoven displayed his musical talents at an early age and was taught by his father Johann van Beethoven and Christian Gottlob Neefe. During his first 22 years in Bonn, Beethoven intended to study with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and befriended Joseph Haydn. Beethoven moved to Vienna in 1792 and began studying with Haydn, quickly gaining a reputation as a virtuoso pianist. He lived in Vienna until his death. During the late 18th century, his hearing began to deteriorate significantly, yet he continued to compose, conduct, and perform, even after becoming completely deaf.
Beethoven was the grandson of a musician of Flemish origin named Lodewijk van Beethoven (1712–73) who moved at the age of twenty to Bonn.[ Lodewijk (Ludwig is the German cognate of Dutch Lodewijk) was employed as a bass singer at the court of the Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become Kapellmeister (music director). Lodewijk had one son, Johann (1740–1792), who worked as a tenor in the same musical establishment, and gave lessons on piano and violin to supplement his income. Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767; she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, who had been the head chef at the court of the Archbishopric of Trier.
Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn. There is no authentic record of the date of his birth; however, the registry of his baptism, in a Roman Catholic service at the Parish of St. Regius on 17 December 1770, survives. As children of that era were traditionally baptised the day after birth in the Catholic Rhine country, and it is known that Beethoven's family and his teacher Johann Albrechtsberger celebrated his birthday on 16 December, most scholars accept 16 December 1770 as Beethoven's date of birth. Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only Ludwig, the second-born, and two younger brothers survived infancy. Caspar Anton Carl was born on 8 April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776.
Beethoven's first music teacher was his father. Although tradition has it that Johann van Beethoven was a harsh instructor, and that the child Beethoven, "made to stand at the keyboard, was often in tears," the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians claimed that no solid documentation supported this, and asserted that "speculation and myth-making have both been productive." Beethoven had other local teachers: the court organist Gilles van den Eeden (d. 1782), Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer (a family friend, who taught Beethoven the piano), and Franz Rovantini (a relative, who instructed him in playing the violin and viola).[2] Beethoven's musical talent was obvious at a young age. Johann, aware of Leopold Mozart's successes in this area (with son Wolfgang and daughter Nannerl), attempted to exploit his son as a child prodigy, claiming that Beethoven was six (he was seven) on the posters for Beethoven's first public performance in March 1778.
Some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe, who was appointed the Court's Organist in that year.[ Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March 1783 had helped him write his first published composition: a set of keyboard variations (WoO 63). Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, at first unpaid (1781), and then as a paid employee (1784) of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named "Kurfürst" ("Elector") for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Frederick (1708–1784), were published in 1783. Maximilian Frederick noticed Beethoven's talent early, and subsidised and encouraged the young man's musical studies.
Maximilian Frederick's successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Franz, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, and he brought notable changes to Bonn. Echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with increased support for education and the arts. The teenage Beethoven was almost certainly influenced by these changes. He may also have been influenced at this time by ideas prominent in freemasonry, as Neefe and others around Beethoven were members of the local chapter of the Order of the Illuminati.[12]
In March 1787 Beethoven traveled to Vienna (possibly at another's expense) for the first time, apparently in the hope of studying with Mozart. The details of their relationship are uncertain, including whether or not they actually met. After just two weeks Beethoven learned that his mother was severely ill, and returned home. His mother died shortly thereafter, and the father lapsed deeper into alcoholism. As a result, Beethoven became responsible for the care of his two younger brothers, and he spent the next five years in Bonn.
Beethoven was introduced to several people who became important in his life in these years. Franz Wegeler, a young medical student, introduced him to the von Breuning family (one of whose daughters Wegeler eventually married). Beethoven often visited the von Breuning household, where he taught piano to some of the children. Here he encountered German and classical literature. The von Breuning family environment was less stressful than his own, which was increasingly dominated by his father's decline.[15] Beethoven also came to the attention of Count Ferdinand von Waldstein, who became a lifelong friend and financial supporter.
In 1789 Beethoven obtained a legal order by which half of his father's salary was paid directly to him for support of the family.[17] He also contributed further to the family's income by playing viola in the court orchestra. This familiarised Beethoven with a variety of operas, including three by Mozart that were performed at court in this period. He also befriended Anton Reicha, a flautist and violinist of about his own age who was a nephew of the court orchestra's conductor, Josef Reicha.[18]

يتيم الام في سن السابعة عشرة ومات ابوه وهو في سن الـ 22 كما انه كان يعاني من اعاقة في السمع.

يتيم الأم في سن الـ 17.

09-13-2012, 01:37 PM

المشاركة 25

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



Srinivasa Ramanujan
- Srinivasa was an Indian mathematician who was able to make huge contributions in the area of mathematical analysis and number theory. Srinivasa demonstrated an uncanny, natural ability to master mathematics. He had a complete math book mastered by 13, and even discovered theorems of his own. He won many awards by showing others his superior mathematical ability at his school. By age 17, this mathematical prodigy was doing his own research with mathematics and numbers. He compiled nearly 4,000 equations and identities in his short lifetime.

Srinivasa Ramanujan FRS (pronunciation (help·info)) (22 December 1887 – 26 April 1920) was an Indian mathematician and autodidact who, with almost no formal training in pure mathematics, made extraordinary contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series, and continued fractions. Living in India with no access to the larger mathematical community, which was centered in Europe at the time, Ramanujan developed his own mathematical research in isolation. As a result, he sometimes rediscovered known theorems in addition to producing new work. Ramanujan was said to be a natural genius by the English mathematician G.H. Hardy, in the same league as mathematicians like Euler and Gauss.[1]
Born in a poor Brahmin family, Ramanujan's introduction to formal mathematics began at age 10. He demonstrated a natural ability, and was given books on advanced trigonometry written by S. L. Loney that he mastered by the age of 12; he even discovered theorems of his own, and re-discovered Euler's identity independently. He demonstrated unusual mathematical skills at school, winning accolades and awards. By 17, Ramanujan had conducted his own mathematical research on Bernoulli numbers and the Euler–Mascheroni constant.
Ramanujan received a scholarship to study at Government College in Kumbakonam, but lost it when he failed his non-mathematical coursework. He joined another college to pursue independent mathematical research, working as a clerk in the Accountant-General's office at the Madras Port Trust Office to support himself. In 1912–1913, he sent samples of his theorems to three academics at the University of Cambridge. G. H. Hardy, recognizing the brilliance of his work, invited Ramanujan to visit and work with him at Cambridge. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Srinivasa died of illness, malnutrition, and possibly liver infection in 1920 at the age of 32.
During his short lifetime, Ramanujan independently compiled nearly 3900 results (mostly identities and equations). Most of his claims have now been proven correct, although a small number of these results were actually false and some were already known. He stated results that were both original and highly unconventional, such as the Ramanujan prime and the Ramanujan theta function, and these have inspired a vast amount of further research.[6] However, the mathematical mainstream has been rather slow in absorbing some of his major discoveries. The Ramanujan Journal, an international publication, was launched to publish work in all areas of mathematics influenced by his work.
In December 2011, in recognition of his contribution to mathematics, the Government of India declared that Ramanujan's birthday (22 December) should be celebrated every year as National Mathematics Day, and also declared 2012 the National Mathematical Year.

early life

Ramanujan was born on 22 December 1887 in Erode, Madras Presidency, at the residence of his maternal grandparents. His father, K. Srinivasa Iyengar, worked as a clerk in a sari shop and hailed from the district of Thanjavur.
His mother, Komalatammal, was a housewife and also sang at a local temple. They lived in Sarangapani Street in a traditional home in the town of Kumbakonam. The family home is now a museum.
When Ramanujan was a year and a half old, his mother gave birth to a son named Sadagopan, who died less than three months later.
In December 1889, Ramanujan had smallpox جدري and recovered, unlike thousands in the Thanjavur District who died from the disease that year.
He moved with his mother to her parents' house in Kanchipuram, near Madras (now Chennai).
In November 1891, and again in 1894, his mother gave birth to two children, but both children died in infancy.
On 1 October 1892, Ramanujan was enrolled at the local school. In March 1894, he was moved to a Telugu medium school. After his maternal grandfather lost his job as a court official in Kanchipuram, Ramanujan and his mother moved back to Kumbakonam and he was enrolled in the Kangayan Primary School.
When his paternal grandfather died, he was sent back to his maternal grandparents, who were now living in Madras. He did not like school in Madras, and he tried to avoid attending. His family enlisted a local constable to make sure he attended school. Within six months, Ramanujan was back in Kumbakonam.
Since Ramanujan's father was at work most of the day, his mother took care of him as a child. He had a close relationship with her. From her, he learned about tradition and puranas. He learned to sing religious songs, to attend pujas at the temple and particular eating habits – all of which are part of Brahmin culture. At the Kangayan Primary School, Ramanujan performed well. Just before the age of 10, in November 1897, he passed his primary examinations in English, Tamil, geography and arithmetic. With his scores, he stood first in the district. That year, Ramanujan entered Town Higher Secondary School where he encountered formal mathematics for the first time.
By age 11, he had exhausted the mathematical knowledge of two college students who were lodgers at his home. He was later lent a book on advanced trigonometry written by S. L. Loney.
He completely mastered this book by the age of 13 and discovered sophisticated theorems on his own. By 14, he was receiving merit certificates and academic awards which continued throughout his school career and also assisted the school in the logistics of assigning its 1200 students (each with their own needs) to its 35-odd teachers.[21] He completed mathematical exams in half the allotted time, and showed a familiarity with infinite series. Ramanujan was shown how to solve cubic equations in 1902 and he went on to find his own method to solve the quartic. The following year, not knowing that the quintic could not be solved by radicals, he tried (and of course failed) to solve the quintic. In 1903 when he was 16, Ramanujan obtained from a friend a library-loaned copy of a book by G. S. Carr.[22][23] The book was titled A Synopsis of Elementary Results in Pure and Applied Mathematics and was a collection of 5000 theorems. Ramanujan reportedly studied the contents of the book in detail.[24] The book is generally acknowledged as a key element in awakening the genius of Ramanujan.[24] The next year, he had independently developed and investigated the Bernoulli numbers and had calculated Euler's constant up to 15 decimal places.[25] His peers at the time commented that they "rarely understood him" and "stood in respectful awe" of him.[21]
When he graduated from Town Higher Secondary School in 1904, Ramanujan was awarded the K. Ranganatha Rao prize for mathematics by the school's headmaster, Krishnaswami Iyer. Iyer introduced Ramanujan as an outstanding student who deserved scores higher than the maximum possible marks.[21] He received a scholarship to study at Government Arts College, Kumbakonam,[26][27] However, Ramanujan was so intent on studying mathematics that he could not focus on any other subjects and failed most of them, losing his scholarship in the process.[28] In August 1905, he ran away from home, heading towards Visakhapatnam and stayed in Rajahmundry for about a month.[29] He later enrolled at Pachaiyappa's College in Madras. He again excelled in mathematics but performed poorly in other subjects such as physiology. Ramanujan failed his Fine Arts degree exam in December 1906 and again a year later. Without a degree, he left college and continued to pursue independent research in mathematics. At this point in his life, he lived in extreme poverty and was often on the brink of starvation.[30]

Adulthood in India

On 14 July 1909, Ramanujan was married to a nine-year old bride, Janaki Ammal. After the marriage, Ramanujan developed a hydrocele testis, an abnormal swelling of the tunica vaginalis, an internal membrane in the testicle. The condition could be treated with a routine surgical operation that would release the blocked fluid in the scrotal sac. His family did not have the money for the operation, but in January 1910, a doctor volunteered to do the surgery for free.
After his successful surgery, Ramanujan searched for a job. He stayed at friends' houses while he went door to door around the city of Madras (now Chennai) looking for a clerical position. To make some money, he tutored some students at Presidency College who were preparing for their F.A. exam.
In late 1910, Ramanujan was sick again, possibly as a result of the surgery earlier in the year. He feared for his health, and even told his friend, R. Radakrishna Iyer, to "hand these [Ramanujan's mathematical notebooks] over to Professor Singaravelu Mudaliar [the mathematics professor at Pachaiyappa's College] or to the British professor Edward B. Ross, of the Madras Christian College."[35] After Ramanujan recovered and got back his notebooks from Iyer, he took a northbound train from Kumbakonam to Villupuram, a coastal city under French control
==
While he had his friends and mentors, it was an unfinished life. Ramanujan passed away at the young age of 32 of tuberculosis, السل but he left behind formulations in mathematics that have paved the path for many scholars who came after him.

طفولة وحياة كارثية.

09-13-2012, 01:38 PM

المشاركة 26

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



Johann Sebastian Bach
- Bach was an exceptional composer and organist. He specialized in choir, orchestra, and solo instruments. He was able to enrich the German composing style with a full harmonic scale and was able to adapt rhythms from Italy and France. Though his music began early in the 19th century, he is now noted as one of the greatest composers in the Western tradition. Bach was yet another musical genius.

Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March [O.S. 21 March] 1685 – 28 July 1750) was a German composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist of the Baroque Period. He enriched many established German styles through his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and the adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. Many of Bach's works are still known today, such as the Brandenburg Concertos, the Mass in B minor, the The Well-Tempered Clavier, and his cantatas, chorales, partitas, passions, and organ works – and his music is revered for its intellectual depth, technical command, and artistic beauty.

Bach was born in Eisenach, Saxe-Eisenach into a very musical family; his father, Johann Ambrosius Bach (Johann Ambrosius Bach (February 22/24, 1645 – February 20/24, 1695) was a German composer, father to Johann Sebastian Bach) ; was the director of the town's musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father taught him to play violin and harpsichord, and his brother, Johann Christoph Bach, taught him the clavichord and exposed him to much contemporary music. Bach also sang, and he went to the St Michael's School in Lüneburg because of his skill in voice. After graduating, he held several musical posts across Germany: he served as Kapellmeister (director of music) to Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen, Cantor of Thomasschule in Leipzig, and Royal Court Composer to August III. Bach's health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Modern historians believe that his death was caused by a combination of stroke and pneumonia.[

Bach's abilities as an organist were highly respected throughout Europe during his lifetime, although he was not widely recognised as a great composer until a revival of interest and performances of his music in the first half of the 19th century. He is now generally regarded as one of the main composers of the Baroque period, and as one of the greatest composers of all time.

life

Childhood (1685–1703)

Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, Saxe-Eisenach, on 21 March 1685 O.S. (31 March 1685 N.S.). He was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth child of Johann Ambrosius; the eldest son in the family was 14 at the time of Bach's birth. His father taught him violin and harpsichord. His uncles were all professional musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians, and composers. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach (1645–93), introduced him to the organ, and an older second cousin, Johann Ludwig Bach (1677–1731), was a well-known composer and violinist. Bach drafted a genealogy around 1735, titled "Origin of the musical Bach family".
Bach's mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. Bach, 10, moved in with his oldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach (1671–1721), the organist at the Michaeliskirche in Ohrdruf, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.[14] There he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brother's, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly.[15][16] He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord. J.C. Bach exposed him to the works of great composers of the day, including South German composers such as Johann Pachelbel (under whom Johann Christoph had studied)[2] and Johann Jakob Froberger; North German composers;[3] Frenchmen, such as Jean-Baptiste Lully, Louis Marchand, Marin Marais; and the Italian clavierist Girolamo Frescobaldi. Also during this time, he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French, and Italian at the local gymnasium.[17]
At the age of 14, Bach, along with his older school friend George Erdmann, was awarded a choral scholarship to study at the prestigious St. Michael's School in Lüneburg in the Principality of Lüneburg.[18] Although it is not known for certain, the trip was likely taken mostly on foot.[17] His two years there were critical in exposing him to a wider facet of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir he played the School's three-manual organ and harpsichords.[17] He came into contact with sons of noblemen from northern Germany sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines.
Although little supporting historical evidence exists at this time, it is almost certain that while in Lüneburg, Bach visited the Johanniskirche (Church of St. John) and heard (and possibly played) the church's famous organ (built in 1549 by Jasper Johannsen, and played by Georg Böhm). Given his musical talent, Bach had significant contact with prominent organists of the day in Lüneburg, most notably Böhm, but also including organists in nearby Hamburg, such as Johann Adam Reincken[

يتيم الأم والأب في سن الـ 10 .

09-13-2012, 01:39 PM

المشاركة 27

ايوب صابر

مراقب عام سابقا



Wolfgang Amedeus Mozart

- Mozart was a very influential composer during the classical era. He was able to create over 600 compositions that were widely accepted and acknowledged. His music specialties included symphony, chamber music, piano, opera, and choral music. Mozart is among the most popular of classical composers, and many of his works are still included in concerts today. Mozart clearly demonstrated his musical proficiency and level of genius.
==
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (German:, English see fn.) baptismal name Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791), was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era.
Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood. Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, he was engaged as a court musician in Salzburg, but grew restless and travelled in search of a better position, always composing abundantly. While visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame but little financial security. During his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his early death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons.
Mozart learned voraciously from others, and developed a brilliance and maturity of style that encompassed the light and graceful along with the dark and passionate. He composed over 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, and his influence on subsequent Western art music is profound; Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote that "posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years."[3]

biography

Family and early years

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born to Leopold Mozart (1719–1787) and Anna Maria, née Pertl (1720–1778), at 9 Getreidegasse in Salzburg, capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, a former ecclesiastical principality in what is now Austria, but then was part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
He was the youngest of seven children, five of them who died in infancy.
His elder sister was Maria Anna (1751–1829), nicknamed "Nannerl". Mozart was baptized the day after his birth at St. Rupert's Cathedral. The baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself "Wolfgang Amadè Mozart" as an adult, but there were many variants.
Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the musical establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian, the ruling Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg. Leopold became the orchestra's deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his son's birth, Leopold published a violin textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule, which achieved success.
When Nannerl was seven, she began keyboard lessons with her father while her three-year-old brother looked on. Years later, after her brother's death, she reminisced:
He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. [...] In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and pieces at the clavier. [...] He could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. [...] At the age of five, he was already composing little pieces, which he played to his father who wrote them down.
These early pieces, K. 1–5, were recorded in the Nannerl Notenbuch.
Biographer Maynard Solomon notes that, while Leopold was a devoted teacher to his children, there is evidence that Mozart was keen to progress beyond what he was taught. His first ink-spattered composition and his precocious efforts with the violin were of his own initiative and came as a surprise to his father. Leopold eventually gave up composing when his son's musical talents became evident.[ In his early years, Mozart's father was his only teacher. Along with music, he also taught his children languages and academic subjects.

1762–1773: Years of travel

During Mozart's youth, his family made several European journeys in which he and Nannerl performed as child prodigies. These began with an exhibition, in 1762, at the court of the Prince-elector Maximilian III of Bavaria in Munich, and at the Imperial Court in Vienna and Prague. A long concert tour spanning three and a half years followed, taking the family to the courts of Munich, Mannheim, Paris, London, The Hague, again to Paris, and back home via Zurich, Donaueschingen, and Munich.
During this trip, Mozart met a great number of musicians and acquainted himself with the works of other composers. A particularly important influence was Johann Christian Bach, whom Mozart visited in London in 1764 and 1765. The family again went to Vienna in late 1767 and remained there until December 1768. In 1767, during this period, Mozart composed the Latin drama Apollo et Hyacinthus first performed in Salzburg University.
These trips were often difficult and travel conditions were primitive. The family had to wait for invitations and reimbursement from the nobility and they endured long, near-fatal illnesses far from home: first Leopold (London, summer 1764) then both children (The Hague, autumn 1765).
After one year in Salzburg, Leopold and Mozart set off for Italy, leaving Mozart's mother and sister at home. This travel lasted from December 1769 to March 1771. As with earlier journeys, Leopold wanted to display his son's abilities as a performer and a rapidly maturing composer. Mozart met G. B. Martini, in Bologna, and was accepted as a member of the famous Accademia Filarmonica. In Rome, he heard Gregorio Allegri's Miserere twice in performance in the Sistine Chapel and wrote it out from memory, thus producing the first unauthorized copy of this closely guarded property of the Vatican.
In Milan, Mozart wrote the opera Mitridate, re di Ponto (1770), which was performed with success. This led to further opera commissions. He returned with his father later twice to Milan (August–December 1771; October 1772 – March 1773) for the composition and premieres of Ascanio in Alba (1771) and Lucio Silla (1772). Leopold hoped these visits would result in a professional appointment for his son in Italy, but these hopes were never realized.
Toward the end of the final Italian journey, Mozart wrote the first of his works to be still widely performed today, the solo motet Exsultate, jubilate, K. 165.

1773–1777: The Salzburg court

After finally returning with his father from Italy on 13 March 1773, Mozart was employed as a court musician by the ruler of Salzburg, Prince-Archbishop Hieronymus Colloredo. The composer had a great number of friends and admirers in Salzburg[20] and had the opportunity to work in many genres, including symphonies, sonatas, string quartets, masses, serenades, and a few minor operas. Between April and December 1775, Mozart developed an enthusiasm for violin concertos, producing a series of five (the only ones he ever wrote), which steadily increased in their musical sophistication. The last three—K. 216, K. 218, K. 219—are now staples of the repertoire. In 1776 he turned his efforts to piano concertos, culminating in the E-flat concerto K. 271 of early 1777, considered by critics to be a breakthrough work.[21]
Despite these artistic successes, Mozart grew increasingly discontented with Salzburg and redoubled his efforts to find a position elsewhere. One reason was his low salary, 150 florins a year;[22] Mozart also longed to compose operas, and Salzburg provided only rare occasions for these. The situation worsened in 1775 when the court theater was closed, especially since the other theater in Salzburg was largely reserved for visiting troupes.
Two long expeditions in search of work interrupted this long Salzburg stay: Mozart and his father visited Vienna from 14 July to 26 September 1773, and Munich from 6 December 1774 to March 1775. Neither visit was successful, though the Munich journey resulted in a popular success with the premiere of Mozart's opera La finta giardiniera.[24]

1777–1778: The Paris journey

In August 1777, Mozart resigned his Salzburg position[26] and, on 23 September, ventured out once more in search of employment, with visits to Augsburg, Mannheim, Paris, and Munich.[27]
Mozart became acquainted with members of the famous orchestra in Mannheim, the best in Europe at the time. He also fell in love with Aloysia Weber, one of four daughters in a musical family. There were prospects of employment in Mannheim, but they came to nothing,[28] and Mozart left for Paris on 14 March 1778[29] to continue his search. One of his letters from Paris hints at a possible post as an organist at Versailles, but Mozart was not interested in such an appointment.[30] He fell into debt and took to pawning valuables.[31] The nadir of the visit occurred when Mozart's mother was taken ill and died on 3 July 1778.[32] There had been delays in calling a doctor—probably, according to Halliwell, because of a lack of funds.[33]
While Mozart was in Paris, his father was pursuing opportunities for his son back in Salzburg[ With the support of local nobility, Mozart was offered a post as court organist and concertmaster. The yearly salary was 450 florins,[35] but he was reluctant to accept.[36] After leaving Paris on in September 1778, he tarried in Mannheim and Munich, still hoping to obtain an appointment outside Salzburg. In Munich, he again encountered Aloysia, now a very successful singer, but she was no longer interested in him.[37] Mozart finally reached home on 15 January 1779 and took up the new position, but his discontent with Salzburg was undiminished.
Among the better known works that Mozart wrote on the Paris journey are the A minor piano sonata K. 310/300d and the "Paris" Symphony (no. 31); these were performed in Paris on 12 and 18 June 1778.

رزق ليوبولد وزوجته آنا ماريا موزارت بولدهما اماديوس، وحينها لم يعلما بأنه سوف يصبح نابغة من نوابغ الزمان. له اخت واحدة وتسمى "نانيرل" (1751-1829م)،. تم تعميده في اليوم التالي لميلاده بكنيسة روبرتس.

والده كان مفوضاً لإدارة الأوركسترا لدى رئيس الأساقفة في سالزبورغ، وهو يعتبر مؤلفاً موسيقياً ثانوياً. كما كان معلماً خبيراً، ففي العام الذي ولد فيه كان والده قد ألف كتاباً ناجحاً عن آلة الكمنجة وموزارت لم يتعلم في حياته سوي الموسيقى وكانت أسرته فقيرة لذلك لم يعالجوه من الفشل الكلوي أو الحمى.

كان الاصغر سنا من بين سبعة أطفال ، مات خمسة من إخوته في طفولتهم ، ومرض بالحمى والفشل الكلوي ولم تعالجه عائلته بسبب الفقر الشديد ، و ماتت والدته وعمره 22 سنة.

يتيم يتم متأخر وحياة كارثية فيها الكثير من الموت والمرض.

09-13-2012, 10:32 PM

المشاركة 28

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مراقب عام سابقا

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George Berkeley

- George Berkeley was an Irish philosopher and developed a famous theory of “immaterialism.” Berkeley also published a book called “The Analyst” that would critique calculus and influence common day mathematics. University Of California, Berkeley was named after George due to his intelligence and philosophical insight.
==
George Berkeley, (born March 12, 1685, near Dysert Castle, near Thomastown?, County Kilkenny, Ireland—died January 14, 1753, Oxford, England), Anglo-Irish Anglican bishop, philosopher, and scientist, best known for his empiricist and idealist philosophy, which holds that everything save the spiritual exists only insofar as it is perceived by the senses.

Table Of Contents

Early life and works

Berkeley was the eldest son of William Berkeley, described as a “gentleman” in George’s matriculation entry and as a commissioned officer, a cornet of dragoons, in the entry of a younger brother. Brought up at Dysert Castle, Berkeley entered Kilkenny College in 1696 and Trinity College, Dublin, in 1700, where he graduated with a B.A. degree in 1704. While awaiting a fellowship vacancy, he made a critical study of time, vision, and the hypothesis that there is no material substance. The principal influences upon his thinking were empiricism, represented by the English philosopher John Locke, and Continental skepticism, represented by Pierre Bayle. His first publication, Arithmetica and Miscellanea Mathematica (published together in 1707), was probably a fellowship thesis.

==
George Berkeley was born in or near Kilkenny, Ireland on 12 March 1685. He was raised in Dysart Castle. Although his father was English, Berkeley always considered himself Irish. In 1696, he entered Kilkenny College
==
George Berkeley's father was William Berkeley and his mother is believed to have been Elisabeth Southerne, although this has not been verified with complete certainty

جورج بيركلي (بالإنجليزية: George Berkeley) (12 مارس 1685 – 14 يناير 1753) كان فيلسوفًا بريطانيًا-إيرلنديًا وأسقفا أنجليكانيا يعتبر من أهم مساندي الرؤية الجوهرية في القرن الثامن العشر الميلادي، ادعى بيركلي انه لا يوجد شيء اسمه مادة على الإطلاق وما يراه البشر ويعتبرونه عالمهم المادي لا يعدو ان يكون مجرد فكرة في عقل الله. وهكذا فأن العقل البشري لا يعدو ان يكون بيانا للروح. قلة من فلاسفة اليوم يمتلكون هذه الرؤية المتطرفة، لكن فكرة ان العقل الإنساني، هو جوهر، وهو أكثر علوا ورقيا من مجرد وظائف دماغية، لا تزال مقبولة بشكل واسع. آراء بيركلي هوجمت، وفي نظر الكثيرين نسفت تماما.
لبيركلي أيضا أعمال في الرياضيات الإبستمولوجيا.

مجهول الطفولة.

09-13-2012, 10:52 PM

المشاركة 29

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Ludwig Wittgenstein
- Ludwig was an Austrian philosopher that developed theories involving logic. He contributed to the philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of the mind. He has had a huge influence on philosophy and is widely accepted as one of the twentieth century’s best philosophers. Wittengenstein published 2 books and both were highly influential in philosophy.
Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (26 April 1889 – 29 April 1951) was an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language.[1] He was professor in philosophy at the University of Cambridge from 1939 until 1947.[2] In his lifetime, he published just one book review, one article, a children's dictionary, and the 75-page Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921).[3] In 1999, his posthumously published Philosophical Investigations (1953) was ranked as the most important book of 20th-century philosophy by the Baruch Poll , standing out as "...the one crossover masterpiece in twentieth-century philosophy, appealing across diverse specializations and philosophical orientations".[4] Philosopher Bertrand Russell described him as "the most perfect example I have ever known of genius as traditionally conceived, passionate, profound, intense, and dominating".[5]
Born in Vienna into one of Europe's wealthiest families, he gave away his entire inheritance.[6] Three of his brothers committed suicide, with Ludwig contemplating it too.[7] He left academia several times: serving as an officer on the frontline during World War I, where he was decorated a number of times for his courage; teaching in schools in remote Austrian villages, where he encountered controversy for hitting children when they made mistakes in mathematics; and working during World War II as a hospital porter in London, where he told patients not to take the drugs they were prescribed, and where no-one knew he was one of the world's most famous philosophers.[8] He described philosophy, however, as "the only work that gives me real satisfaction."[9]
His philosophy is often divided between his early period, exemplified by the Tractatus, and later period, articulated in the Philosophical Investigations. The early Wittgenstein was concerned with the logical relationship between propositions and the world, and believed that by providing an account of the logic underlying this relationship he had solved all philosophical problems. The later Wittgenstein rejected many of the conclusions of the Tractatus, arguing that the meaning of words is constituted by the function they perform within any given language-game.
Wittgenstein's influence has been felt in nearly every field of the humanities and social sciences, yet there are widely diverging interpretations of his thought. In the words of his friend and colleague Georg Henrik von Wright: "He was of the opinion... that his ideas were generally misunderstood and distorted even by those who professed to be his disciples. He doubted he would be better understood in the future. He once said he felt as though he were writing for people who would think in a different way, breathe a different air of life, from that of present-day men."[10]

Early life

Wittgenstein's mother was Leopoldine Kalmus. Her father was Czech Jewish and her mother was Austrian-Slovene Catholic—she was Ludwig's maternal grandparent and only non-Jewish grandparent, whose ancestry was Austrian and an aunt of the Nobel Prize laureate Friedrich Hayek on her maternal side.
Ludwig was born at 8:30pm on 26 April 1889 in the so-called "Wittgenstein Palace" at Alleegasse 16, now the Argentinierstrasse, near the Karlskirche. Karl and Poldi, as she was known, had nine children in all. There were four girls: Hermine, Margaret (Gretl), Helene, and a fourth daughter who died as a baby; and five boys: Johannes (Hans), Kurt, Rudolf (Rudi), Paul—who became a concert pianist despite losing an arm in World War I—and Ludwig, who was the youngest of the family.
The children were baptized as Catholics, and raised in an exceptionally intense environment. The family was at the center of Vienna's cultural life; Bruno Walter described the life at the Wittgensteins' palace as an "all-pervading atmosphere of humanity and culture". Karl was a leading patron of the arts, commissioning works by Auguste Rodin and financing the city's exhibition hall and art gallery, the Secession Building. Gustav Klimt painted Wittgenstein's sister for her wedding portrait, and Johannes Brahms and Gustav Mahler gave regular concerts in the family's numerous music rooms.
For Ludwig, who highly valued precision and discipline, contemporary music was never considered acceptable at all. "Music", he said to his friend Drury in 1930, "came to a full stop with Brahms; and even in Brahms I can begin to hear the noise of machinery."[26] Ludwig himself had absolute pitch perception, and his devotion to music remained vitally important to him throughout his life: he made frequent use of musical examples and metaphors in his philosophical writings, and was unusually adept at whistling lengthy and detailed musical passages. He also learnt to play the clarinet in his thirties.[29]

Family temperament; brothers' suicides

Ray Monk writes that Karl's aim was to turn his sons into captains of industry; they were not sent to school lest they acquire bad habits, but were educated at home to prepare them for work in Karl's industrial empire.
Three of the five brothers would later commit suicide. The Irish psychiatrist Michael Fitzgerald argues that Karl was a harsh perfectionist who lacked empathy, and that Wittgenstein's mother was anxious and insecure, unable to stand up to her husband Johannes Brahms said of the family, whom he visited regularly: "They seemed to act towards one another as if they were at court".
The family appeared to have a strong streak of depression running through it. Anthony Gottlieb tells a story about Paul practicing on one of the seven grand pianos in the Wittgensteins' main family mansion, when he suddenly shouted at Ludwig in the next room: "I cannot play when you are in the house, as I feel your skepticism seeping towards me from under the door!"[33]
The eldest brother, Hans, was hailed as a musical prodigy. At the age of four, Waugh writes, Hans could identify the Doppler effect in a passing siren as a quarter-tone drop in pitch, and at five started crying "Wrong! Wrong!" when two brass bands in a carnival played the same tune in different keys. But he died in mysterious circumstances in May 1902, when he ran away to America and disappeared from a boat in Chesapeake Bay, most likely having committed suicide.[34]
Two years later, aged 22 and studying chemistry at the Berlin Academy, the third eldest brother, Rudi, committed suicide in a Berlin bar. He had asked the pianist to play Thomas Koschat's "Verlassen, verlassen, verlassen bin ich ("Forsaken, forsaken, forsaken am I"),[35] before mixing himself a drink of milk and potassium cyanide. He had left several suicide notes, one to his parents that said he was grieving over the death of a friend, and another that referred to his "perverted disposition". It was reported at the time that he had sought advice from the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, an organization that was campaigning against Paragraph 175 of the German Criminal Code, which from 1871 until 1969 prohibited homosexual sex. His father forbade the family from ever mentioning his name again.[36]
"I won't say "See you tomorrow" because that would be like predicting the future, and I'm pretty sure I can't do that."
— Wittgenstein, 1949[37]

The second eldest brother, Kurt, an officer and company director, shot himself on 27 October 1918 at the end of World War I, when the Austrian troops he was commanding refused to obey his orders and deserted en masse.[30] According to Gottlieb, Hermine had said Kurt seemed to carry "the germ of disgust for life within himself".[38] Paul also considered suicide, as did Ludwig.[33] Later Wittgenstein wrote: "I ought to have... become a star in the sky. Instead of which I have remained stuck on earth."[3
When his father died in 1913 Wittgenstein inherited a fortune, which he quickly gave away. When war broke out the next year, he volunteered for the Austrian army. He continued his philosophical work and won several medals for bravery during the war.

طفولة كارثية. والد مثالي صعب المراس تسبب في انتحار ثلاثة من ابناؤه. الاب مات عام 1913 اي وهو في سن 23 ولا يعرف متى ماتت الام.

حياة كارثية.

09-13-2012, 11:05 PM

المشاركة 30

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مراقب عام سابقا

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Socrates

- Socrates is regarded as one of the best ancient greek philosophers of all time. As teacher of Plato, he has been associated with highly advanced thinking during his time. His work continues to form much of the foundation for the study of philosophy today. Socrates has made important contributions to the study of logic and writings, and has provided a lot of groundwork that much of the Western civilization has followed.
==
Socrates (; Greek: Ancient Greek pronunciation:; c. 469 BC – 399 BC) was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Many would claim that Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity.
Through his portrayal in Plato's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. It is Plato's Socrates that also made important and lasting contributions to the fields of epistemology and logic, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed.
As Martin Cohen has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers "an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of the 'Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic."[3]

Biography

The Socratic problem

An accurate picture of the historical Socrates and his philosophical viewpoints is problematic: an issue known as the Socratic problem.
As Socrates did not write philosophical texts, the knowledge of the man, his life, and his philosophy is entirely based on writings by his students and contemporaries. Foremost among them is Plato; however, works by Xenophon, Aristotle, and Aristophanes also provide important insights.[4] The difficulty of finding the “real” Socrates arises because these works are often philosophical or dramatic texts rather than straightforward histories. Aside from Thucydides (who makes no mention of Socrates or philosophers in general) and Xenophon, there are in fact no straightforward histories contemporary with Socrates that dealt with his own time and place. A corollary of this is that sources that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and are often partisan (those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no testament). Historians therefore face the challenge of reconciling the various texts that come from these men to create an accurate and consistent account of Socrates' life and work. The result of such an effort is not necessarily realistic, merely consistent.
Plato is frequently viewed as the most informative source about Socrates' life and philosophy.[5] At the same time, however, many scholars believe that in some works Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his avowedly brightened-up version of "Socrates" far beyond anything the historical Socrates was likely to have done or said; and that Xenophon, being an historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate which Socrates Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure, or Plato's fictionalization.
It is also clear from other writings and historical artifacts, however, that Socrates was not simply a character, or an invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes' work (especially The Clouds), is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work.

Life

Details about Socrates can be derived from three contemporary sources: the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon (both devotees of Socrates), and the plays of Aristophanes. He has been depicted by some scholars, including Eric Havelock and Walter Ong, as a champion of oral modes of communication, standing up at the dawn of writing against its haphazard diffusion.
Aristophanes' play The Clouds portrays Socrates as a clown who teaches his students how to bamboozle their way out of debt. Most of Aristophanes' works, however, function as parodies. Thus, it is presumed this characterization was also not literal.
According to Plato, Socrates' father was Sophroniscus and his mother Phaenarete, a midwife. Though she was characterized as undesirable in temperament, Socrates married Xanthippe who was much younger than he. She bore for him three sons, Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. His friend Crito of Alopece criticized him for abandoning his sons when he refused to try to escape before his execution.
It is unclear how Socrates earned a living. Ancient texts seem to indicate that Socrates did not work. In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation: discussing philosophy. In The Clouds Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment for teaching and running a sophist school with Chaerephon, while in Plato's Apology and Symposium and in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. More specifically, in the Apology Socrates cites his poverty as proof he is not a teacher. According to Timon of Phlius and later sources, Socrates took over the profession of stonemasonry from his father. There was a tradition in antiquity, not credited by modern scholarship, that Socrates crafted the statues of the Three Graces, which stood near the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD.[12]
Several of Plato's dialogues refer to Socrates' military service. Socrates says he served in the Athenian army during three campaigns: at Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Delium. In the Symposium Alcibiades describes Socrates' valour in the battles of Potidaea and Delium, recounting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle (219e-221b). Socrates' exceptional service at Delium is also mentioned in the Laches by the General after whom the dialogue is named (181b). In the Apology, Socrates compares his military service to his courtroom troubles, and says anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to retreat from philosophy must also think soldiers should retreat when it seems likely that they will be killed in battle.
In 406 he was a member of the Boule, and his tribe the Antiochis held the Prytany on the day the Generals of the Battle of Arginusae, who abandoned the slain and the survivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartan navy, were discussed. Socrates was the Epistates and resisted the unconstitutional demand for a collective trial to establish the guilt of all eight Generals, proposed by Callixeinus. Eventually, Socrates refused to be cowed by threats of impeachment and imprisonment and blocked the vote until his Prytany ended the next day, whereupon the six Generals who had returned to Athens were condemned to death.
In 404 the Thirty Tyrants sought to ensure the loyalty of those opposed to them by making them complicit in their activities. Socrates and four others were ordered to bring a certain Leon of Salamis from his home for unjust execution. Socrates quietly refused, his death averted only by the overthrow of the Tyrants soon afterwards.
=
(Since Plato has Lysimachus refer to Sophroniscus in the past tense, and since the dialogue's dramatic date is not long after the battle of Delium, we may safely infer that Sophroniscus was dead by 424.) The fact that one of Socrates' sons - but not his eldest son Lamprocles - was named after Sophroniscus suggests that Sophroniscus was the less illustrious of the two grandfathers (John Burnet 1911, Plato: Phaedo, p. 12) - that the father of Socrates' wife, Xanthippe, was named Lamprocles and had a more impressive pedigree than even Sophroniscus. All this suggests that Socrates' inherited social status was in fact much higher than is traditionally recognized.
= Phaenarete (Greek Φαιναρέτη), wife of Sophroniscus, was the mother of the Greek philosopher Socrates and his half-brother, Patrocles. (Since Sophroniscus had died before 424 BC, he was probably Phaenarete's first husband, while Chaeredemus, father of Patrocles, was her second.) The name Phaenarete means "She who brings virtue to light".[1

==
على الاغلب انه يتيم الاب حيث ان والدته تزوجت وانجب اخ غير شقيق. لكن لا يعرف متى مات والد وهناك من يقول انه مات قبل 424 ق.م.

مجهول الطفولة.