11- أسكيا محمد
من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة

Askia Mohammed I (Askia the Great)
(d. 1538)

Died 1538
Songhai emperor
"This king makes war only upon neighboring enemies and upon those who do not want to pay him tribute. When he has gained a victory, he has all of them—even the children—sold in the market at Timbuktu."

Leo Africanus, describing Mohammed I Askia
Mohammed I Askia ruled Songhai, perhaps the most powerful empire of premodern Africa, at its height. Under his reign, the Songhai controlled a vast area in the continent's western corner, ranging from the dry sands of the Sahara to the dense rain forests of modern-day Nigeria. A devout Muslim, he united much of his land under the faith, and ruled a well-administered empire. In spite of all his achievements, however, he was doomed to die in humiliation, and the empire did not long outlast him.

Encyclopedia of World Biography on Askia Muhammad Ture
Askia Muhammad Ture (ca. 1443-1538) founded the Askia dynasty of the West African Songhay empire. He extended the conquests of Sunni Ali, promoted commerce, and increased the political influence of Islam in his state.
Muhammad's father was a Soninke from the Futa Toro region of modern Senegal. Although his mother was a Songhay, who may have been the sister of Sunni Ali himself, Muhammad was later to be thought of as a "foreign" usurper because of his father's ancestry.
يعتقد ان والده جاء من السنغال وتزوج اخت سنس على الحاكم الذي سبقه وحنا شب اسكا محمد واصبح ضابطا بالجيش قام بانقلاب غسكري واستولى على الحكم . ولا يتوفر اي معلومات عن طفولته لكننا نعرف بأن والده كان يعتبر اجنبي بالنسبة للبلاد الت حكمها اسكا محمك
Little is known about his early life before his career as a general in Ali's army, but his reign is one of the best-documented in early West African history.
Accession to the Throne
Sunni Ali died in November 1492 and was succeeded by his son, Sunni Baru. Baru, unlike his father, tried completely to ignore Moslem interests when he came to power and thus committed a mistake which threw Moslem support behind Muhammad, then a popular general. Muhammad coalesced his support and met and defeated Baru in April 1493. He declared himself king and took the title of Askia. During the next decade he vigorously eliminated all the survivors of the Sunni line and of its predecessor, the Za. Muhammad was aware of his equivocal position as a usurper, مغتصب and he sought a new basis of legitimacy in Islam. He assiduously cultivated Moslem support, and within 2 years his throne was so secure that he felt he could risk a long absence from the Sudan.
Muhammad knew that by undertaking a holy pilgrimage to Mecca he would make a clean break with the "magician-king" tradition of the past and thus further buttress his support among the growing number of Songhay Moslems. He used the accumulated wealth of Ali's reign to put together an entourage which surely rivaled that of the famous 14th-century Mali king, Mansa Musa. By the time of Muhammad's hajj, however, his arrival in the Near East was not such a novelty, and he failed to make a similar sensation, although he spent and gave out 300,000 pieces of gold.
Completion of the pilgrimage automatically gave Muhammad the honored title of al-Hajj, but he succeeded in obtaining an additional title from the sharif of Mecca, who named him the Caliph of the Western Sudan. This was strictly an honorific title, but it further added to his authority in Songhay.
Political Consolidation
Upon his return to Gao in 1497, the main task facing Muhammad was that of consolidating the vast but tenuous empire left by Sunni Ali. He in fact had to renew many of Ali's conquests militarily. In 1498 he led a force to the west, annexing portions of the Mali empire, and he eventually expanded almost to the Atlantic coast. In the east he started by gaining control of the important trade route to Air in 1501 and finished by conquering for the first time much of Hausaland by 1512. Songhay control of the most distant areas was not, however, longlived. Nevertheless, by about 1516 Muhammad had imposed permanent control over much of what is now the Republic of Mali and the western portion of the Republic of Niger.
During these 2 decades of military campaigns he advanced the professionalization of the army that had been started by Ali and built a stronger navy. The loss of great numbers of men in the campaigns against Mali encouraged him to incorporate even more conquered peoples into his armies in order to reduce the need for levies on his own people, thus allowing agriculture to develop.
Despite his military prowess Muhammad's most important achievements were political. He gave the empire an administration based upon a pyramidal ranking of territories.
Gao was administered directly, but most of the rest of the empire was ruled under four great provinces, each governed by members, or favorites, of the ruling family. Few vassal kings remained in power as they had under Ali, and unity was achieved through the royal family itself. The widely respected military lent stability to this system. Muhammad also introduced a unified system of weights and measures and appointed commerce inspectors, which led to a new era of prosperity within the empire.
Even though Muhammad may have closely embraced Islam for political reasons, he was genuinely interested in Islamic theology, and he generously supported Moslem scholars. He frequently corresponded with North African scholars for legal advice. Nevertheless, he made no attempt to model his government on purely Islamic lines and did not promote any mass conversions. He continued to retain many non-Islamic elements in his court practices, and the mass of rural Songhay people remained non-Moslem.
His Last Years
A general weakness of the Songhay state, as well as many other African states, was the absence of an orderly system of political succession. Muhammad himself was deposed by three of his sons in 1528, when he was old and blind. The eldest of these sons, Musa, took the throne and tried to secure his position by killing his brothers. Muhammad was probably too infirm by this time to pose any threat himself because he was allowed to stay on in his Gao palace. The other brothers were unhappy with the new turn of events, and they deposed Musa in 1531 in favor of a nephew of Muhammad, Muhammad Bengan. This new king promptly exiled his uncle to an island on the Niger River, where he remained until 1537, when another son, Ismail, gained the throne and recalled him. By then Askia Muhammad was ill, and he died the next year. The solid foundations which he had laid for the empire allowed it to survive numerous dynastic struggles for the remainder of the century, only to fall finally to a Moroccan invasion in 1591, which saw the introduction of firearms to the Western Sudan.

12- بوميبول أدولياديج
من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة


بوميبول أدولياديج هو ملكتايلاند ولد في 5 ديسمبر1927. يعتبر الملك بوميبول أدولياديج من أثرى أثرياء العالم، إذ صنفته مجلة فوربس الأمريكية في نشرة لها حول أغنى ملوك العالم نشرت في 2008، كأغنى ملك في العالم بثروة قدرت قيمتها ب35 مليار دولار أمريكي.[1] وتنتشر صوره بكثرة في جميع أنحاء تايلند ، ونظرا لأن تايلند لم يتم استعمارها من قبل أي دولة ، لذا يكون يوم ميلاد الملك هو اليوم الوطني في تايلند.

Bhumibol Adulyadej (RTGS: Phumiphon Adunyadet; Thai: ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช, pronounced [pʰūː.mí.pʰōnʔà.dūn.jā.dèːt] (listen); Sanskrit: अतुल्यतेज भूमिबोल, Atulyatej Bhumibala; see full title below; born 5 December 1927) is the current Monarch of Thailand. He is known as Rama IX (and within the Thai royal family and to close associates simply as Lek[1]). Having reigned since 9 June 1946, he is the world's longest-serving current head of state and the longest-reigning monarch in Thai history.[2] He was admitted to Siriraj Hospital in September 2009 for flu and pneumonia.[3] Rumors about his ill-health caused Thai financial markets to tumble in October 2009.[4]
Although Bhumibol is legally a constitutional monarch, and is not legally allowed a role in politics, he has made several decisive interventions in the Thai political sphere. He was credited with facilitating Thailand's transition to democracy in the 1990s, although he has supported numerous military regimes, including Sarit Dhanarajata's during the 1960s and the Council for National Security in 2006–8. During his long reign, he has authorized over 15 coups, 16 constitutions, and 27 changes of prime ministers.[5] He has also used his influence to stop military coups, including attempts in 1981 and 1985. Bhumibol is advised by a hand-picked Privy Council, many members of which have themselves made controversial forays into politics.
Bhumibol is respected by many Thais[citation needed], although conservative royalists have claimed that there are widespread threats to overthrow the monarchy.[6] Bhumibol is legally considered "inviolable", and insults, claims that he is involved in politics, and criticism of him can result in three to fifteen years in jail.[7] Thousands have been jailed and several governments overthrown for allegations of lese majeste after he invited public criticism in a 2005 speech.[8][9][10]
Bhumibol is credited with a social-economic theory of self-sufficiency. His personal wealth is tremendous: Forbes estimated Bhumibol's personal fortune, some of which is managed by the Crown Property Bureau to be US$30 billion in 2010.[11] He is the wealthiest man in Thailand and the world's wealthiest royal.[12][13] He currently holds major shares in several private companies, including, more than 40% in Sammakorn,[14] 30% in SCG,[15] 30% in Thai Insurance PLC[16] and 20% in SCB.[17] The Crown Property Bureau claims that its wealth is held in trust for the Thai nation; however, this claim is controversial, and the exact value of its assets is confidential and reported only to Bhumibol.[18] Bhumibol himself has made donations to numerous development projects in Thailand, in areas including agriculture, environment, public health, occupational promotion, water resources, communications and public welfare.[19] Commemoration of Bhumibol's contributions to Thailand are ubiquitous in the Thai media.[6]

Early life

Bhumibol (center) with his mother and siblings Ananda Mahidol (left) and Galyani Vadhana (right).
He was born at the Mount Auburn Hospital in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the United States on 5 December 1927. He was the younger son of HRH Prince Mahidol Adulyadej and MomSangwan (later HRH Princess Srinagarindra, the Princess Mother: Somdet Phra Si Nakharinthra Boromaratchachonnani). His name, Bhumibol Adulyadej, means "Strength of the Land, Incomparable Power".
His father was enrolled in the Public Health program at Harvard University, hence his unusual place of birth for a monarch.
He came to Thailand in 1928, after Prince Mahidol obtained a certificate from Harvard. He briefly attended Mater Dei school in Bangkok but in 1933 his mother took the family to Switzerland, where he continued his education at the Ecole Nouvelle de la Suisse Romande in Lausanne. He received the baccalauréat des lettres (high-school diploma with major in French literature, Latin, and Greek) from the Gymnase Classique Cantonal of Lausanne, and by 1945 had begun studying science at the University of Lausanne, when World War II ended and the family returned to Thailand.[22]

Succession and marriage

عندما كان الملك في سن التاسعة عشرة
in mysterious circumstances, prompting suggestions that Bhumibol had been involved in or responsible for his death

Bhumibol returned to Switzerland in order to complete his education, and his uncle, Rangsit, Prince of Chainat, was appointed Prince Regent. Bhumibol then switched over his field of study to law and political science.
While finishing his degree in Switzerland, Bhumibol visited Paris frequently. It was in Paris that he first met Mom RajawongseSirikit Kitiyakara, daughter of the Thai ambassador to France.[24]
On 4 October 1948, while Bhumibol was driving a Fiat Topolino on the Geneva-Lausanne road, he collided with the rear of a braking truck 10 km outside of Lausanne. He hurt his back and incurred cuts on his face that cost him the sight of his right eye.[25][26] While he was hospitalised in Lausanne, Sirikit visited him frequently. She met his mother, who asked her to continue her studies nearby so that Bhumibol could get to know her better. Bhumibol selected for her a boarding school in Lausanne, Riante Rive. A quiet engagement in Lausanne followed on 19 July 1949, and the couple were married on 28 April 1950, just a week before his coronation.
Bhumibol and his wife Queen Sirikit have four children:
· (Formerly HRH) Princess Ubol Ratana, born 5 April 1951 in Lausanne, Switzerland;
· HRH The Crown Prince Maha Vajiralongkorn, born 28 July 1952;
· HRH The Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, born 2 April 1955;
· HRH The Princess Chulabhorn Walailak, born 4 July 1957.
One of Bhumibol's grandchildren, Bhumi Jensen, was killed in the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. He was the autistic son of Princess Ubol Ratana.[27]

Coronation and titles

Bhumibol was crowned King of Thailand on 5 May 1950 at the Royal Palace in Bangkok where he pledged that he would "reign with righteousness for the benefit and happiness of the Siamese people" ("เราจะครองแผ่นดินโดยธรรมเพื่อประโยชน์สุขแห่งมหาชนชาวสยาม").[28] Notable elements associated with the coronation included the Bahadrabith Throne beneath the Great White Umbrella of State; and he was presented with the royal regalia and utensils.[29]
In 1950 on Coronation Day, Bhumibol's consort was made Queen (Somdej Phra Boromarajini). The date of his coronation is celebrated each 5 May in Thailand as Coronation Day, a public holiday. On 9 June 2006, Bhumibol celebrated his 60th anniversary as the King of Thailand, becoming the longest reigning monarch in Thai history.
Following the death of his grandmother Queen Savang Vadhana, Bhumibol entered a 15-day monkhood (22 October 1956 – 5 November 1956) at Wat Bowonniwet, as is customary for Buddhist males on the death of elder relatives.[30] During this time, Sirikit was appointed his regent. She was later appointed Queen Regent (Somdej Phra Boromarajininat) in recognition of this.
Although Bhumibol is sometimes referred to as King Rama IX in English, Thais refer to him as Nai Luang or Phra Chao Yu Hua (ในหลวง or พระเจ้าอยู่หัว: both mean "the King" or "Lord Upon our Heads"). He is also called Chao Chiwit ("Lord of Life").[31] Formally, he would be referred to as Phrabat Somdej Phra Chao Yu Hua (พระบาทสมเด็จพระเจ้าอยู่หัว) or, in legal documents, Phrabat Somdej Phra Paraminthara Maha Bhumibol Adulyadej (พระบาทสมเด็จพระปรมินทรมหาภูมิพลอดุลยเดช), and in English as His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej. He signs his name as ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช ป.ร. (Bhumibol Adulyadej Por Ror; this is the Thai equivalent of Bhumibol Adulyadej R[ex]).

Bhumibol is a painter, musician, photographer, author and translator. His book Phra Mahachanok is based on a traditional Jataka story of Buddhist scripture. The Story of Thong Daeng is the story of his dog Thong Daeng.[108]
In his youth, Bhumibol was greatly interested in firearms. He kept a carbine, a Sten gun, and two automatic pistols in his bedroom, and he and his elder brother, King Ananda Mahidol, often used the gardens of the palace for target practice.[109]
There are two English language books that provide extensive detail - albeit not always verifiable - about Bhumibol's life, especially his early years and then throughout his entire reign. One is The Revolutionary King by William Stevenson, ISBN 978-1-84119-451-6; the other is The King Never Smiles by Paul M. Handley. A third and earlier work, The Devil's Discus, is also available in Thai and English. All three books are banned in Thailand.
Bhumibol's creativity in, among other things, music, art, and invention, was the focus of a 2 minute long documentary created by the government of Abhibisit Vejjajiva that was screened at all branches of the Major Cineplex Group and SF Cinema City, the two largest cinema chains in Thailand.[110]

Bhumibol suffers from lumbar spinal stenosis, a narrowing of the canal that contains the spinal cord and nerve roots, which results in back and leg pain and numbness in the legs. He received a microsurgical decompression in July 2006.[111][112]
Bhumibol was taken to Bangkok's Siriraj Hospital on 13 October 2007, complaining he felt weak down his right side; doctors later found out through scans that he had a blood shortage to his brain.[113] He was discharged on 7 November 2007.[114]
On 19 September 2009, he was once again admitted to Siriraj Hospital, apparently with the flu and pneumonia. US diplomatic cables from 2009, published by Wikileaks in 2011, reported that the king is suffering from Parkinson's disease and depression.[115] His youngest daughter HRH Princess Chulabhorn Walailak confirmed in an April 2011 television interview that the king remains in the hospital.[116]
On 17 November 2011, Bhumibol was diagnosed with diverticulitis while being confined in Siriraj Hospital. He is also forced to remain in fast until the disease is cured, the Bureau of the Royal Household announced.[117] He received further treatment for the condition in January 2012.

Bhumibol is an accomplished sailor and sailboat designer.[119] He won a gold medal for sailing in the Fourth Southeast Asian Peninsular (SEAP) Games in 1967, together with HRH Princess Ubol Ratana whom he tied for points.[120] This accomplishment is all the more remarkable given Bhumibol's lack of binocular depth perception. Bhumibol has also sailed the Gulf of Thailand from Hua Hin to Toey Harbour in Sattahip, covering 60 nautical miles (110 km) in a 14-hour journey on the "Vega 1," an OK Class dinghy he built.[109]
Like his father, a former military naval engineer, Bhumibol was an avid boat designer and builder. He produced several small sail-boat designs in the International Enterprise, OK, and Moth Classes. His designs in the Moth class include the “Mod,” “Super Mod,” and “Micro Mod.”[121]

Estimates of the post-devaluation (circa 1997–1998) wealth of the royal household range from 10 billion to 20 billion USD.[127] In August 2008, Forbes came out with its 2008 version of The World's Richest Royals. King Bhumibol took first place on the list with an estimated wealth of $35 billion.[128] A few days later the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Thailand issued a statement that the Forbes report erred in attributing wealth owned by the Crown Property Bureau (CPB) solely to Bhumibol.[129] In the 2009 version of its list, Forbes acknowledged the government's objections, but justified the continued inclusion of the CPB's assets on the ground that Bhumibol was its trustee.[12] The 2009 estimate was down to $30 billion due to declines in real estate and stocks.[12]
The wealth and properties of Bhumibol and the royal family are managed by the Crown Property Bureau and the Privy Purse. The CPB was established by law but is managed independently of the Thai Government and reports only to Bhumibol.[109][130]
Through the CPB, Bhumibol and the royal family own land and equity in many companies and massive amounts of land, including 3,493 acres in Bangkok.[131] The CPB is the majority shareholder of Siam Cement (the largest Thai industrial conglomerate), Christiani & Nielsen (one of the largest Thai construction firms), Deves Insurance (which holds a monopoly on government property insurance and contract insurance), Siam Commercial Bank (one of the largest Thai banks), and Shin Corporation (a major Thai telecommunications firm, through the CPB's holdings in Siam Commercial Bank). The CPB also rents or leases about 36,000 properties to third parties, including the sites of the Four Seasons Hotel Bangkok, the Suan Lum Night Bazaar, Siam Paragon and the Central World Tower. The CPB spearheaded a plan to turn Bangkok’s historical Rajadamnoen Avenue into a shopping street known as the “Champs-Élysées of Asia” and in 2007, shocked longtime residents of traditional marketplace districts by serving them with eviction notices.[132] Bhumibol's substantial income from the CPB, estimated to be at least five billion baht in 2004 alone, is exempt from taxes.[132][133] The CPB receives many state privileges. Although the Ministry of Finance technically runs the CPB, decisions are made solely by Bhumibol. The CPB's annual report is for the eye of Bhumibol alone; the annual report is not released to the public.[132]
In addition, Bhumibol has numerous personal investments independent of the CPB. He is personally the majority shareholder of the Thai Insurance Company and Sammakorn, as well as many other companies.[134]
The CPB has a fleet of three aircraft for the use of the royal family, including a Boeing 737-800 and an Airbus A319. The newer Airbus had been purchased by the Thaksin Shinawatra government for government use, but after the 2006 coup, the junta offered it to the king. The other planes are used by members of the royal family.[135]
Among other vehicles, Bhumibol owns two custom-built stretch limousines from LCW Automotive Corp.[136] The Golden Jubilee Diamond, the largest faceted diamond in the world, was given to him by businessman Henry Ho.

American journalist Paul Handley, who spent thirteen years in Thailand, wrote the biography The King Never Smiles. The Information and Communications Ministry banned the book and blocked the book's page on the Yale University Press website in January 2006. In a statement dated 19 January 2006, Thai National Police Chief General Kowit Wattana said the book has "contents which could affect national security and the good morality of the people."[189] The book provides a detailed discussion of Bhumibol's role in Thai political history and also analyzes the factors behind Bhumibol's popularity.
William Stevenson, who had access to the Royal Court and the Royal Family, wrote the biography The Revolutionary King in 2001.[190] An article in Time says the idea for the book was suggested by Bhumibol.[1] Critics noted that the book displays intimate knowledge about personal aspects of Bhumibol. However, the book has been unofficially banned in Thailand and the Bureau of the Royal Household warned the Thai media about even referring to it in print. An official ban was not possible as it was written with Bhumibol's blessing. The book has been criticised for factual inaccuracies, disrespecting Bhumibol (it refers to him by his personal nickname "Lek"), and proposing a controversial theory explaining the death of King Ananda. Stevenson said, "The king said from the beginning the book would be dangerous for him and for me."[1]

Bhumibol's only son, Prince Vajiralongkorn, was given the title "Somdej Phra Boroma Orasadhiraj Chao Fah Maha Vajiralongkorn Sayam Makutrajakuman" (Crown Prince of Siam) on 28 December 1972 and made heir apparent (องค์รัชทายาท) to the throne in accordance with the Palace Law on Succession of 1924.[191]
On 5 December 1977, Princess Sirindhorn was given the title, "Siam Boromrajakumari" (Princess Royal of Siam). Her title is often translated by the English-language press as "Crown Princess", although her official English-language title is simply "Princess".[192]
Although the constitution was later amended to allow the Privy Council to appoint a princess as successor to the throne, this would only occur in the absence of an heir apparent. This amendment is retained in Section 23 of the 1997 "People's Constitution." This effectively allowed Princess Sirindhorn to potentially be second in line to the throne, but did not affect Prince Vajiralongkorn's status as heir apparent.
Recent constitutions of Thailand have made the amendment of the Palace Law of Succession the sole prerogative of the reigning king. According to Gothom Arya, former election commissioner, this allows the reigning king, if he so chooses, to appoint his son or any of his daughters to the throne

His Majesty the King was born on Monday the 5th of December 1927, at Mount Auburn Hospital, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., being the third and youngest child of Their Royal Highnesses Prince and Princess Mahidol of Songkla.
His Majesty attended the Ecole Nouvelle de la Suisse Romande, Chailly sur Lausanne. Later on he moved to the Gymnase Classique Cantonal of Lausanne from where he received his Bachelier s lettres diploma. He then chose to enter Lausanne University to study science, but the sudden death of his elder brother, King Ananda Mahidol, in Bangkok on the 9th of June, 1946, changed the course of his life completely, for the Law of Succession bestowed on him the arduous but challenging function of the Thai Crown. The Government on behalf of the people came to ask the Princess Mother for her other son to be their King. As he had not finished his education, His Majesty decided to go back to Switzerland for another period of study, but this time in the subject of Political Science and Law in order to equip himself with the proper knowledge for government.
Following the completion of his education in Switzerland in the early 1950s, His Majesty returned home to Thailand. In the years following, he began what has become his way of life - traveling throughout the year to the provinces and rural areas of the kingdom to visit his people, talk to them and, perhaps even more important, listen to them. He learns first hand of their needs and their problems and then sets about trying to find a way of giving immediate help; later these problems are studied in depth to find a permanent solution or way of assistance.

Early Life:
On December 5, 1927, a Thai princess gave birth to a son named Bhumibol Adulyadej ("Strength of the Land, Incomparable Power") in a Cambridge, Massachusetts hospital. The family was in the United States because the child's father, Prince Mahidol, was studying for a Public Health certificate at Harvard University.
His mother studied nursing at Simmons College. The boy was the second son for Prince Mahidol and Princess Srinagarindra.
When Bhumibol was a year old, his family returned to Thailand, where his father took up an intership in a hospital in Chiang Mai.
Prince Mahidol was in poor health, though, and died of kidney and liver failure in September of 1929.

مات والده وهو في الثانية من العمر وتولى الحكم بعد ان قتل اخاه الملك باطلاق النار عليه في ظروف غامضة حتى ان البعض يتهمه في مقتله وكان عند ذلك ما يزال في الجامعة وفي سن التاسعة عشره.

يتيم في سن الـ 2

من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة

نُصب خروبري (Chrobry) كأول ملك بولندي للبلاد عام 1025. ضُمت أجزاء كبيرة من البلاد إلى الامبراطورية الرومانية المقدسة عام 1163. بعد إعادة توحيد البلاد تدريجياً في القرن الخامس عشر، أُعلن قيام الوحدة عام 1447 مع ليتوانيا. قُسمت بولندا ثلاث مرات في الأعوام 1772، 1793 و1795. بعد هزيمة نابليون، اتفقت الدول المنتصرة: النمسا،بروسيا وروسيا على تقسيم بولندا نهائياً فيما بينهم عام 1815. هكذا أضحى البولنديون شعب بلا دولة حتى إعلان قيام مملكة بولندا مجدداً عام 1916 في خضم أحداث الحرب العالمية الأولى 1914 - 1919. أُعلنت الجمهورية عام 1918 وضمت في السنوات اللاحقة أراضي بولندية سابقة للدولة. في فترة ما بين الحربين العالميتين 1919 - 1939، عاشت بولندا حالة من عدم الاستقرار السياسي والاقتصادي، ساعد ضعفها في السيطرة على الأوضاع في مواجهة التهدبد السوفيتي والألماني المستمر على ذلك. اتفاق عدم الاعتداء بين هتلر وستالين عام 1939، قسم الأراضي الواقعة بين بلديهما ومن ضمنها بولندا. هكذا أشعلت ألمانيا فتيل الحرب العالمية الثانية بغزوها لبولندا في 1 سبتمبر/أيلول 1939، كذللك الأمر تقدمت القوات السوفياتية من جهة الشرق وأصبحت بولندا خلال أيام معدودة غير موجودة على الخريطة.


الاتحاد البولندي الليتواني في قمته
لكن سرعان ما أعلنت ألمانيا الحرب على الاتحاد السوفياتي عام 1941 واستولت لاحقاً على شرق بولندا أيضاً. تمكنت القوات السوفياتية من هزيمة القوات الألمانية وبسط السيطرة السوفياتية على بولندا مجدداً عام 1945. بدأ السوفيات ببناء الدولة البولندية الجديدة على الطريقة السوفياتية الشيوعية. كانت بولندا من الآن فصاعداً جزء من الكتلة الشرقية ففي عام 1952 أُعلنت بولندا كجمهورية شعبية بدستور جديد وفي عام 1955 أُسس حلف وارسو. بدأت الحركة الديمقراطية بالصعود في بداية الثمانينات إلى أن تمكنت عام 1989 من تشكيل أول حكومة بدون أن يكون رئيسها شيوعي. ليخ فاوينسا (Wałęsa) أصبح عام 1990 أول رئيس للبلاد منتخب. أعلنت بولندا، هنغاريا وتشيكوسلوفاكيا عام 1991 رغبتهم في الانضمام للغرب. أصبحت بولندا في نفس العام عضو بالمجلس الأوروبي، عام 1999 بحلف شمال الأطلسي (الناتو) وعام 2004 بالاتحاد الأوروبي.

تابع،،،
13- بولسلو الاول كروبر

Bolesław I Chrobry (967 – 1025)
There was good reason for Boleslaus I being given the name "Chrobry". In Old Polish the word means "valiant", "a brave man". Not only was Boleslaus a brave and belligerent king, but also a talented, prudent, and resolute statesman. In his reign, Poland's territories expanded very considerably as a result both of military conquest and peace treaties.

The oldest son of Mieszko I and his first wife Dobrawa, the Czech princess, as a young boy he was sent by his father to the court of Otto II as a hostage and guarantor of his father's loyalty after the Battle of Cedynia (972).
ارسل الى المانيا كرهينة وهو طفل وذلك لضمان ولاء والده الملك لامبراطور المانيا الذي انتصر عليه في الحرب

There young Boleslaus began his education in the face of uncertainty and constant fear for his life.
بدأ تعلميه وهو خائف على حياته وغير متأكد من مصيره

He observed the world of politics, met numerous scholars and established friendships with young members of German aristocracy, which later proved to be of huge importance.

Boleslaus remained at the Emperor's court for several years.
ظل عند امبراطور المانيا لعدة سنوات

However, he was not able to return to Poland for good.

His father Mieszko I re-married after the death of his first wife
تزوج والده امرأة اخرى بعد موت والدته .

Mieszko's second wife was Oda, daughter of a German margrave, and he intended to pass the throne not to his first-born, but to one of his three sons from the second marriage.

Therefore, to avoid a conflict with his father, Boleslaus was sent to the court of his uncle, the Czech king Boleslaus the Pious

ارسل الى خاله في ملك تشكوسلفاكيا لتجنب الصراع بينه وبين اخوته غير الاشقاء .

It is not certain when the son was reconciled with his father, but as soon as he heard of Mieszko's death in 992 the young prince was back at the Polish court and he was the one, rather than his brothers Mieszko, Lambert or Świętopełk, who ascended the throne, having won over the influential magnates. Oda, together with her sons, was sent to Germany, where Boleslaus' friends made certain that she did not make any claims to the Polish succession.
لا يعرف متى تصالح مع والده ولكنه عاد عند موت والده عام 992 واصبح هو الملك

Boleslaus' reign was a series of incessant wars and military engagements. He demonstrated his outstanding political virtues in matters of foreign policy. Remaining under the strong influence of Otto III, who proved his friendship towards the Polish prince by promising him a prompt coronation and, at the Gniezno Congress in 1000, endowing him with relics of the Saints that carried an importnat symbolic meaning: the spear of St. Maurice the Soldier. Boleslaus never lost his vigilance. Despite Otto III's profound commitment, he was not surprised by the upheaval in Germany following the accession of Henry II. He decided to make use of the opportunity and, counting on prolonged internal conflict in Germany, attacked Meissen and received it as a fief from the new Emperor, together with Milzi and Lusatia.

The next step for Boleslaus was to occupy the Kingdom of
Bohemia, to which he claimed rights of succession through his mother, but lost as a result of the rebellion of the people of Prague in 1004. Thereafter he set out on an expedition against Kievan Rus' and captured the city. He also extended his influence in Western Pomerania. However, owing to some aspects of his policy which were short-sighted, and tolerant of looting in the new territories, there was a constant state of unrest in them. This fact pleased the German Emperor, Henry II, who did not relish the idea of a strong independent country on his eastern border. There was intermittent fighting between the Poles and the Holy Roman Empire from 1002 until 1018, when a peace treaty was signed in Budziszyn (Bautzen); on the grounds of this treaty, the contested territories of Milzi and Lusatia (on the River Elbe, now the south-eastern part of Germany) were ceded to Poland.
Having extended his dominions, and disseminated Christianity throughout them, Boleslaus prepared for his coronation, which finally took place in 1025 and was the peak achievement of his reign. On 17 June of the same year the first crowned monarch of Poland died, having designated Mieszko II, his son by his third wife, as his successor.
http://en.poland.gov.pl/Boleslaw,I,Chrobry,(967,%E2%80%93,1025),1951.html