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Bolesław I Chrobry

(aka Bolesław I the Brave or the Valiant) (Czech: Boleslav Chrabrý) (967 – 17 June 1025), in the past also known as Bolesław I the Great (Wielki), was a Duke of Poland in 992–1025 and the first King of Poland from 19 April 1025 until his death. He also ruled as Boleslav IV, Duke of Bohemia during 1002–1003.
He was the firstborn son of Mieszko I by his first wife, Dobrawa, daughter of Boleslav I the Cruel, Duke of Bohemia.[1][2] He was named after his maternal grandfather.
Bolesław I was a remarkable politician, strategist and statesman. He turned Poland into a country that was not only comparable to older western monarchies, but also elevated it into the European elite. Bolesław conducted successful military campaigns in the west, south and east. He consolidated the Polish lands and conquered territories outside of modern borders of Poland such as Slovakia, Moravia, Red Ruthenia, Meissen and Lusatia as well as Bohemia. He was a powerful mediator in Central European affairs.
Bolesław was an ally of Holy Roman Emperor Otto III who may have crowned him rex. Following the death of Otto III in 1002, he carried out a series of successful wars against the Holy Roman Empire and Otto III's cousin and heir Henry II, ending with the Peace of Bautzen in 1018. In the summer of 1018, in one of his most famous expeditions, Bolesław I captured Kiev, where, according to legend, he notched his sword when hitting Kiev's Golden Gate. Later, a sword known as Szczerbiec, meaning notched sword, would become the ceremonial sword used in the coronation ceremony of Polish kings.
Bolesław I also managed to establish a Polish church structure with a Metropolitan See at Gniezno, independent of the German Archbishopric of Magdeburg, which had tried to lay claim to Polish areas. During the famous Congress of Gniezno he officially freed himself of tribute to the Holy Roman Empire and finally, at the peak of his reign, he had himself crowned as King, the first Polish ruler to do so.
He was an able administrator; he established the so-called "Prince's law", and build numerous forts, churches, monasteries and bridges. Bolesław I established the first Polish monetary system, of a Grzywna divided into 240 Denarii,[1] and minted his own coin. He is widely considered as one of the most talented and accomplished of the Piast rulers.
Life

Youth

Bolesław I was born in Poznań as the first child of Mieszko I, Duke of Poland and his wife, the Bohemian princess Dobrawa. At age six he may have been sent to the Imperial court in Germany as a hostage, according to the agreements of the Imperial Diet of Quedlinburg (although historians now dispute this detail). Another theory stated that Bolesław I spent some time during the 980s at the court of his maternal uncle, Duke Boleslav II the Pious of Bohemia.
In 984 and at the instigation of his father, the eighteen-year-old Bolesław I married the daughter of Rikdag, Margrave of Meissen, probably named Hunilda or Oda. It is believed that following the wedding he became the ruler of Lesser Poland with his capital at Kraków. The death of Margrave Rikdag in 985 left the marriage devoid of any political value, and shortly thereafter the union was dissolved and Hunilda was repudiated.
At the end of 985, probably at the instigation of Boleslav II the Pious, Bolesław I married an unknown Hungarian princess with whom he had a son, Bezprym.[3] In older literature, the princess was identified as Judith, daughter of Géza, Grand Duke of Hungary.[4] Though opinions vary about the identity of Bolesław I 's second wife, there are a number of researchers who still support the hypothesis of her being the daughter of Géza.[5] However, this union also came to a quick end, probably because of the deterioration in political relations between Poland and Hungary, and around 987 the union was dissolved.
By 989, and perhaps as early as 987, Bolesław I married Emnilda, daughter of Dobromir, a Slavic prince of Lusatia. Through this marriage he had a daughter Regelinda, a son, the future king Mieszko II, another daughter and a son Otton. At this time Bolesław I's rule in Lesser Poland may have been at Bohemian conferment. Presuming that it was, he added this province to Poland only after Duke Boleslav II the Pious' death in 999. However assuming that Mieszko I took control of Lesser Poland in 990 (which is likely), than Bolesław I was bestowed the rule in Lesser Poland by his father but without its territory being included in the Polish realm. Bolesław I does not appear in the surviving summary of the Dagome Iudex document, and as such it may be supposed that Lesser Poland was already known as Bolesław I's inheritance, while his two surviving half-brothers Mieszko and Lambert, sons of Mieszko I by his second wife Oda, were to divide the rest of the realm between each other. Another theory is that Bolesław I's absence from the document might be explained by an old Slavic custom whereby children received their inheritance as soon as they reached the age of majority. Thus Bolesław I might have received Kraków as his part of his father's legacy before the writing of the Dagome iudex.[6]
Accession

The circumstances in which Bolesław I took control of the country following the passing of his father, Mieszko I, forecasted what would later become a prevalent practice among the Piast dynasty. It consisted of struggle for domination, usually a military one, among the offspring of nearly every deceased monarch of the Piast dynasty. Bolesław I was no different, and shortly after the death of Mieszko I (25 May 992), he banished his stepmother Oda and his two half-brothers, as they had to be considered competitors to the throne, especially in light of the Dagome Iudex. The exact circumstances of Bolesław I's ascension to the Ducal throne are unknown, but it is known that by June, he was the unquestioned ruler of Poland - as Otto III asked for his military aid in the summer of 992. Also immediately after gaining the full control over Poland, Bolesław I quelled the opposition of the Barons by blinding two of their leaders, the magnates Odylen and Przybywoj.[7] As cruel a sentence as this was, it proved most effective as it triggered such obedience of his subjects that from that point on there was no mention of any challenge of his position whatsoever.

02-17-2012, 07:36 PM

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Bolesław I, byname Bolesław the Brave, Polish Bolesław Chrobry (born 966/967—died June 17, 1025), duke (from 992) and then (from 1024) first king of Poland, who expanded his country’s territory to include Pomerania, Lusatia, and, for a time, the Bohemian princely lands. He made Poland a major European state and also created a Polish church independent of German control.
The son of Mieszko I, ) Mieszko I, (born c. 930—died May 25, 992), Piast prince or duke of Poland (from c. 963), who brought Poland into Christendom and expanded the state to the Baltic Sea. ) the first of the Piast dukes, and the Bohemian princess Dobrawa (Dubravka), Bolesław I inherited the principality of Great Poland (Wielkopolska, between the Oder and the Warta rivers) upon his father’s death in 992. He soon began, by energetic political and military action, to develop and expand the Polish state. He conquered Pomerania along the Baltic Sea in 996 and seized Kraków (formerly a Bohemian possession) soon afterward. He ransomed the relics of the martyred St. Adalbert, bishop of Prague, from the pagan Prussians and buried the relics at Gniezno. The Holy Roman emperor Otto III, who had been Adalbert’s student and Bolesław’s ally since 992, attended that ceremony (March 1000) and marked the occasion by personally acknowledging Bolesław as the sovereign ruler of Poland. With Pope Sylvester II’s approval, the emperor granted Poland its own archdiocese, with Gniezno as its seat. Bolesław then reorganized Poland’s church structure, making it a national church directly under papal jurisdiction and independent of German ecclesiastical control.
After Emperor Otto III’s death (1002), Bolesław seized the imperial lands of Lusatia and Misnia (Meissen) and the principality of Bohemia. These actions started a series of three wars between him and the German king Henry II that lasted until 1018, when, by the Treaty of Bautzen, Bolesław retained Lusatia and Misnia and Henry II won Bohemia. Bolesław’s expansionist policy continued. When he defeated Grand Prince Yaroslav I the Wise of Kiev in battle (July 21, 1018) and placed his own son-in-law (and Yaroslav’s brother), Svyatopolk, on the Kievan throne, his control extended from the western tributaries of the middle Elbe River to the eastern reaches of the Bug River. Though recognized as a sovereign by Otto III in 1000, Bolesław sought to strengthen his position and his independence from imperial control with his papally-sanctioned coronation by the archbishop of Gniezno on Dec. 25, 1024

02-17-2012, 07:38 PM

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Legacy

Military
At the time of his death Bolesław I left Poland larger than the land he had inherited: he had added to his domains the long-contested marches of Lusatia and Sorbian Meissen as well as Red Ruthenia and possibly Lesser Poland. Militarily, at the time, Poland was unquestionably a considerable power as Bolesław I was able to fight successful campaigns against both Holy Roman Empire and the Kievan Rus. On the other hand it must be highlighted that his long-term involvement in the war against Germany allowed Western Pomerania to gain independence from the Polish aegis. Another negative side of Bolesław I's drawn out military campaigns was a damaging influence on the economy of his kingdom. With the passing of each year, Bolesław I needed ever-increasing amounts to finance his wars, especially when fought on two fronts; in Germany and Kiev. Unceasing war had placed ever-increasing fiscal obligations on his subjects, which in turn caused negative sentiment, sentiment that increased throughout his reign, and that would erupt into popular revolt soon after his death.

Economy

Bolesław I was a gifted and organized administrator. He was largely responsible for fully implementing the "Prince's Law" throughout the Polish lands. The Prince's Law created a sort of nationalized economy, controlled by the state, whose sole duty it was to finance the prince's spending needs. These needs were considerable, as the Duke was responsible for all manner of building projects. The foundation of the "Prince's Law" lay in a network of fortified towns called grody, but the ruler also commissioned the building of churches, monasteries, roads, bridges etc., in short the development of an infrastructure. The building projects were financed by collecting taxes in money or goods. Also peasants were required to house the monarch or provide the prince with different manner of goods and services which included communications, hunting, military or others. To produce necessary goods Bolesław I organized a network of service settlements that specialized each in manufacturing about 30 different goods, such as: barrels, arches, metal wares, spears, as well as settlements responsible for animal husbandry, i.e., swine, horses or cattle. Hundreds of villages were thus specialized and named to reflect their particular job. To this day one may find scores of settlements in Poland with names left over from that era, such as: Szewce, Kuchary or Kobylniki. This quite impressive system functioned well enough to support Bolesław I throughout his 33 year reign.

[edit] Political

‎
Increasing both the internal and external strength of the realm was of paramount importance to Bolesław I, especially in the face of increasing pressure from the magnates. The magnates demanded a larger share in the administration of the country while Bolesław I sought to strengthen the central authority of the ruler. Bolesław I's coronation, sometime in 1025, was aimed precisely to reinforce his leading position. In general an overall integration of the country took place during his reign.
Bolesław I was able to establish an independent Polish church structure with a Metropolitan See at Gniezno, with papal and imperial sanction. His work laid a foundation for the use of designation "Poland" that was to unite all regions of the realm, as well as for the use of one symbol to represent the supreme authority of the prince. The symbol was a sign of Gniezno's knightly class: the white eagle.

02-17-2012, 09:44 PM

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14- برونو الكبير

، (ولد في 925، كولونيا، توفي 11 أكتوبر، 965، ريس، الشمبانيا، يوم العيد 11 أكتوبر)، رئيس اساقفة كولونيا وcoregent من الامبراطورية الرومانية المقدسة .
The youngest son of King Henry I the Fowler of Germany and St. Matilda, and brother of Emperor Otto I the Great, Bruno was educated at the cathedral school of Utrecht and the court school of Otto. الابن الاصغر للملك هنري لي فاولر من ألمانيا وسانت ماتيلدا، وشقيق الإمبراطور أوتو الأول ربيت الكبير، وبرونو في مدرسة كاتدرائية أوترخت و مدرسة محكمة من اوتو. Proficient in Latin and Greek, he was a patron of learning. وكان يتقن اللاتينية واليونانية، وراعيا للتعلم. As chancellor from 940, he prepared his brother's official papers and after ordination to the priesthood accompanied him to Italy in 951. كمستشارة من 940، مستعد أوراق شقيقه الرسمية، وبعد التنسيق الى الكهنوت رافقته إلى إيطاليا في 951. Already abbot of Lorsch and Corvey, where he restored monastic observance, he was elected to the see of Cologne in 953 and soon was named duke of Lorraine by Otto. بالفعل رئيس الدير من ماولبرون وCorvey، وحيث أعاد مراعاة الرهبانية، انتخب لنرى من كولونيا في 953 وسرعان ما عين دوق لورين من أوتو. As bishop, Bruno was a zealous and exemplary pastor, and his episcopate marked a new epoch in the city's growth; among the many institutions he founded was the monastery of St. Pantaleon at Cologne. اسقفا، وكان برونو القس متحمس ومثالي، والأسقفية له علامة على عصر جديد في نمو المدينة، وبين العديد من المؤسسات التي أسسها وكان دير القديس بانطاليون في كولونيا. In the troubled duchy of Lorraine, by his prudent and statesmanlike policies he restored peace and devised a new administrative division, maintaining at the same time cordial relations with France . في دوقية لورين المضطرب، من خلال سياسته الحكيمة والحنكة هو استعادة السلام ووضع تقسيم إداري جديد، والحفاظ على علاقات ودية الوقت نفسه مع فرنسا . During Otto's absence in Italy for his imperial coronation (962), Bruno shared the responsibilities of government and care of the Emperor's son, Otto II. أثناء غياب أوتو في إيطاليا لتتويجه الإمبراطورية (962)، يشارك برونو مسؤوليات الحكومة ورعاية ابنها الإمبراطور أوتو الثاني. Bruno died on a mission to France and was buried at St. Pantaleon. مات برونو في مهمة لفرنسا ودفن في القديس بانطاليون.

==
وكان برونو الكبير (أو أنا برونو) (925-965) رئيس أساقفة كولونيا ، ألمانيا ، في الفترة من 953 حتى وفاته، و دوق Lotharingia من 954. He was the brother of Otto I , king of Germany and later Holy Roman Emperor . وكان شقيق أوتو الأول ، ملك ألمانيا ، وفيما بعد الإمبراطور الروماني المقدس .
Bruno was the youngest son of Henry the Fowler and his second wife Matilda of Ringelheim . وكان برونو الابن الاصغر لل فاولر وهنري وزوجته الثانية ماتيلدا من Ringelheim . While he was still a child, it was decided that he should pursue an ecclesiastical career, and he was educated appropriately. بينما كان لا يزال طفلا، فقد تقرر أنه يجب اتباع مهنة الكنسية، وتلقى تعليمه على النحو المناسب. In 951, Otto appointed Bruno as his archchaplain. في 951، عين أوتو برونو كما archchaplain له.
Bruno soon received further advancement. برونو تلقى قريبا إحراز مزيد من التقدم. In 953, the Archbishopric of Cologne fell vacant just when Conrad the Red , Duke of Lotharingia and Otto's son-in-law, had joined a rebellion against Otto. في 953، وانخفض في مطرانية كولونيا الشاغرة فقط عندما كونراد الأحمر ، ودوق Lotharingia وأوتو نجل في القانون، قد شاركت في تمرد ضد أوتو. By appointing Bruno to the vacant position, Otto provided himself with a powerful ally against Conrad in Lotharingia (much of which fell under the archdiocese of Cologne) just when he needed one most. من خلال تعيين برونو لهذا المنصب شاغرا، شريطة أوتو نفسه مع حليف قوي ضد كونراد في Lotharingia (والكثير منها سقط تحت أبرشية كولونيا) فقط عندما هناك حاجة واحدة أكثر من غيرها. By the next year, the rebellion had collapsed. بحلول العام المقبل، وكان التمرد انهارت. Otto deposed Conrad as Duke of Lotharingia and appointed Bruno in his place. المخلوع اوتو كونراد كما دوق Lotharingia وعين برونو في مكانه.
Bruno was to be almost the last duke of the whole of Lotharingia: in 959 two local nobles, Godfrey and Frederick , were appointed as margraves of Lower Lotharingia and Upper Lotharingia respectively. وكان برونو ليكون تقريبا دوق الأخير من كل من Lotharingia: في النبلاء 2 959 المحلي، غودفري ، و فريدريك وعين، كما margraves من Lotharingia السفلى و العليا Lotharingia على التوالي. Both margraves were recognised as dukes after Bruno's death. واعترف كلا margraves كما الدوقات بعد وفاة برونو. The two duchies would only be reunited between 1033 and 1044 under Gothelo I, Duke of Lotharingia . وفقط 2 الدوقيات يمكن لم شمل بين 1033 و 1044 تحت أنا Gothelo، دوق Lotharingia .
The combined positions of archbishop and duke — or archduke , as his biographer Ruotger called him — made Bruno the most powerful man after Otto not just in Germany but also beyond its borders. مواقف مشتركة من رئيس الأساقفة والدوق - أو الدوق جعل برونو أقوى رجل بعد اوتو ليس فقط في ألمانيا ولكن أيضا خارج حدودها -، كما Ruotger كاتب سيرة حياته ودعا له. After the deaths of Louis IV of West Francia in 954 and Hugh the Great , his most powerful feudatory, in 956, Bruno, as brother-in-law to both of them and maternal uncle to their heirs Lothair , the new king, and Hugh Capet , acted as regent of west Francia. بعد وفاة لويس الرابع من فرانسيا الغرب في 954 و هيو الكبير ، له feudatory أقوى، في 956، برونو، وصهر في لكليهما، والخال إلى ورثتهم لوثير ، الملك الجديد، و هيو كابيت ، بدور الوصي من فرانسيا الغرب.
From 961 onwards, Bruno was also appointed as Otto's regent in Germany while Otto was absent in Italy . من 961 فصاعدا، وعين أيضا برونو كما ريجنت أوتو في ألمانيا في حين أوتو كان غائبا في ايطاليا .
Bruno died in Reims in 965 and was buried in the monastery of St Pantaleon , which he had founded, just outside Cologne. مات برونو في ريمس في عام 965 ودفن في دير القديس بانطاليون ، التي كان قد أسسها، فقط خارج كولونيا.
Bruno's position in Cologne was little short of royal. وكان موقف برونو في كولونيا قصيرة القليل من الملكية. Indeed, Otto delegated to Bruno and his successors as archbishop a number of normally royal privileges — the right to build fortifications and set up markets, to strike coins and collect (and keep) such taxes as the special ones on>>> in return for royal protection, those on market trading and tolls from traffic along the Rhine . في الواقع، أوتو المفوضة لبرونو وخلفائه كما المطران عددا من الامتيازات عادة الملكي - الحق في بناء التحصينات وإقامة الأسواق، لضرب النقود المعدنية وجمع (والاحتفاظ) الضرائب مثل تلك الخاصة في مقابل حماية الملكية ، وتلك على التداول في السوق والمكوس من حركة المرور على طول نهر الراين . Even though Bruno's successors as archbishops would not be dukes as well, they would be the secular as well as the ecclesiastical rulers of Cologne until the battle of Worringen three centuries later. على الرغم من خلفاء برونو كما مطارنة لن يكون الدوقات كذلك، فإنها تكون علمانية، وكذلك الحكام الكنسية من كولونيا حتى معركة Worringen ثلاثة قرون في وقت لاحق.
Bruno's court in Cologne was the main intellectual and artistic centre of its period in Germany — far more so than that of his brother Otto, which was far more peripatetic and militarily oriented. وكانت محكمة برونو في كولونيا المركز الرئيسي الفكري والفني من فترة في ألمانيا - أكثر بكثير من أن من أوتو شقيقه، الذي كان أكثر متجول وموجهة عسكريا. Among others, Ratherius and Liutprand of Cremona spent time at the court. من بين أمور أخرى، Ratherius و Liutprand من كريمونا قضى وقتا في المحكمة. Many of the next generation of German ecclesiastical leaders were educated at Bruno's court, like Everaclus of Liège , Gerard bishop of Toul, Wikfrid, bishop of Verdun, and Theoderic , bishop of Metz. تعلموا الكثير من الجيل القادم من قادة الكنسية الألمانية في محكمة برونو، ومثل Everaclus لييج ، جيرارد أسقف تول، Wikfrid، اسقف فردان، و Theoderic ، اسقف متز.

02-17-2012, 09:46 PM

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Bruno the Great

Bruno the Great (or Bruno I) (925–965) was Archbishop of Cologne, Germany, from 953 until his death, and Duke of Lotharingia from 954. He was the brother of Otto I, king of Germany and later Holy Roman Emperor.
Bruno was the youngest son of Henry the Fowler
) Henry I the Fowler (German: Heinrich der Finkler or Heinrich der Vogler; Latin: Henricius Auceps) (876 – 2 July 936) was the Duke of Saxony from 912 and German king from 919 until his death(
and his second wife Matilda of Ringelheim. While he was still a child, it was decided that he should pursue an ecclesiastical career, and he was educated appropriately. In 951, Otto appointed Bruno as his archchaplain.
Bruno soon received further advancement. In 953, the Archbishopric of Cologne fell vacant just when Conrad the Red, Duke of Lotharingia and Otto's son-in-law, had joined a rebellion against Otto. By appointing Bruno to the vacant position, Otto provided himself with a powerful ally against Conrad in Lotharingia (much of which fell under the archdiocese of Cologne) just when he needed one most. By the next year, the rebellion had collapsed. Otto deposed Conrad as Duke of Lotharingia and appointed Bruno in his place.
Bruno was to be almost the last duke of the whole of Lotharingia: in 959 two local nobles, Godfrey and Frederick, were appointed as margraves of Lower Lotharingia and Upper Lotharingia respectively. Both margraves were recognised as dukes after Bruno's death. The two duchies would only be reunited between 1033 and 1044 under Gothelo I, Duke of Lotharingia.
The combined positions of archbishop and duke — or archduke, as his biographer Ruotger called him — made Bruno the most powerful man after Otto not just in Germany but also beyond its borders. After the deaths of Louis IV of West Francia in 954 and Hugh the Great, his most powerful feudatory, in 956, Bruno, as brother-in-law to both of them and maternal uncle to their heirs Lothair, the new king, and Hugh Capet, acted as regent of west Francia.
From 961 onwards, Bruno was also appointed as Otto's regent in Germany while Otto was absent in Italy.
Bruno died in Reims in 965 and was buried in the monastery of St Pantaleon, which he had founded, just outside Cologne.
Bruno's position in Cologne was little short of royal. Indeed, Otto delegated to Bruno and his successors as archbishop a number of normally royal privileges — the right to build fortifications and set up markets, to strike coins and collect (and keep) such taxes as the special ones on Jews in return for royal protection, those on market trading and tolls from traffic along the Rhine. Even though Bruno's successors as archbishops would not be dukes as well, they would be the secular as well as the ecclesiastical rulers of Cologne until the battle of Worringen three centuries later.
Bruno's court in Cologne was the main intellectual and artistic centre of its period in Germany — far more so than that of his brother Otto, which was far more peripatetic and militarily oriented. Among others, Ratherius and Liutprand of Cremona spent time at the court. Many of the next generation of German ecclesiastical leaders were educated at Bruno's court, like Everaclus of Liège, Gerard bishop of Toul, Wikfrid, bishop of Verdun, and Theoderic, bishop of Metz.
Bruno's effect on medieval Cologne was immense. Apart from building a palace, he extended the cathedral to the point where it was regarded as rivalling St Peter's in Rome (this cathedral burned down in 1248 and was replaced by the current one). He brought the area between the old Roman walls and the Rhine within the city fortifications; and built new churches to Saint Martin of Tours within this area and to Saint Andrew just outside the northern city wall and a Benedictine monastery dedicated to St Pantaleon to the south-west of the city.
Bruno translated St. Patroclus'relics from Troyes and buried them in 964 at St Patrokli Dom in Soest, where Patroclus is still today venerated.

ابن الملك هنري ملك المانيا قرر العائلة على ضرورة ان يعيش في الكنيسى وارسل اليها طفل صغير. مات ابوه وهو في سن الحادية عشرة,

يتم في سن الـ 11.

02-18-2012, 12:28 PM

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15- راما الأول ---- فيرا شاكري

(بالتايلندية نقره لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة

فترة:(20 مارس 1736—7 سبتمبر 1809) المؤسس الأول لمملكة سيام والجد الأول لأسرة شاكري بعد أن تم خلع ملك مملكة ثونبوري كان فيرا شاكري وهو قائد في جيش مملكة ثونبوري في غزوة الي كمبوديا وبعد سقوط الدولة عاد الجنرال شاكري معا جيشة الي ثونبوري واستطاع ان يحكم البلاد واسس مملكة سيام

Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke

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Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke or Rama I the Great, was king of Thailand from 1782 to 1809.
He was born in Ayutthaya on March 20, 1737 as son of Phra Aksorn Sundara Smiantra, a noble man in the Ayutthaya kingdom. His birth name was Thong Duang. After getting education in a Buddhist temple, his father sent him to serve as a page for the later king Utumporn. There he met his friend Sin, the later king Taksin. After the fall of Ayutthaya he joined Taksin's army, and was known as Chao Phraya Chakri. The name Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke was given posthumously by king Nangklao (Rama III).
While Taksin's general, he conquered Vientiane in 1778/79, putting the country under vassalage, and removing its Emerald Buddha to Thonburi. In 1782, when Taksin was declared mad after a coup d'etat and was later executed, he assumed power, establishing the Chakri dynasty. He was crowned on April 6; the date is now a public holiday in Thailand.
King Rama I continued Taksin's task of saving the newly reunited country from attack by Burma, but he also reestablished the traditions of the country by salvaging Buddhist texts lost in the chaos after the sacking of Ayutthaya. He also built the new capital Bangkok and in his palace the Wat Phra Kaew to house the Emerald Buddha, and created a new code of laws, the Book of three seals. As literature was his passion he also wrote a Thai version of the Ramayana epos called Ramakian.
He died on September 7, 1809, and was succeeded by his son prince Isarasundorn, king Buddha Loetla Nabhalai[?] (Rama II).

02-18-2012, 12:40 PM

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Cnut the Great] (Old Norse: Knútr inn ríki;[c. 985 or 995 – 12 November 1035), also known as Canute, was a king of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden. Though after the death of his heirs within a decade of his own and the Norman conquest of England in 1066, his legacy was largely lost to history, historian Norman F. Cantor has made the paradoxical statement that he was "the most effective king in Anglo-Saxon history".[
Cnut was of Danish and Slavic descent. His father was Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark (which gave Cnut the patronym Sweynsson, Old Norse Sveinsson).
) Sweyn I Forkbeard (Old Norse: Sveinn Tjúguskegg; c. 960 − 3 February 1014) was king of Denmark and England, as well as parts of Norway. His name appears as Swegen in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. He was a Viking leader and the father of Cnut the Great).
Cnut's mother was the daughter of the first duke of the Polans, Mieszko I; her name may have been Świętosława (see: Sigrid Storråda), but the Oxford DNB article on Cnut states that her name is unknown.[

As a prince of Denmark, Cnut won the throne of England in 1016 in the wake of centuries of Viking activity in northwestern Europe. His accession to the Danish throne in 1018 brought the crowns of England and Denmark together. Cnut held this power-base together by uniting Danes and Englishmen under cultural bonds of wealth and custom, rather than sheer brutality. After a decade of conflict with opponents in Scandinavia, Cnut claimed the crown of Norway in Trondheim in 1028. The Swedish city Sigtuna was held by Cnut. He had coins struck which called him king there, but there is no narrative record of his occupation.
The kingship of England of course lent the Danes an important link to the maritime zone between the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, where Cnut like his father before him had a strong interest and wielded much influence among the Gall-Ghaedhil.[10]

Cnut's possession of England's dioceses and the continental Diocese of Denmark – with a claim laid upon it by the Holy Roman Empire's Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen – was a source of great leverage within the Church, gaining notable concessions from Pope Benedict VIII, and his successor John XIX, such as one on the price of the pallium of his bishops. Cnut also gained concessions on the tolls his people had to pay on the way to Rome from other magnates of medieval Christendom, at the coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor. After his 1026 victory against Norway and Sweden, and on his way to Rome for this coronation, Cnut, in a letter written for the benefit of his subjects, stated himself "king of all England and Denmark and the Norwegians and of some of the Swedes".[11]

Birth and kingship

Cnut was a son of the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard, and an heir to a line of Scandinavian rulers central to the unification of Denmark.[12]Harthacnut was the semi-legendary founder of the Danish royal house who, according to Adam of Bremen, came to Denmark from Northmania. Gorm the Old, Harthacnut's son, being the first in the official line (the 'Old' in his name being to this effect) and his son, Harald Bluetooth, the Danish king at the time of the Christianization of Denmark (his acceptance of Christianity being the first among all Scandinavian kings).
Cnut's mother's name is unknown, although a Slavic princess, daughter to Mieszko I of Poland (in accord with the Monk of St Omer's, Encomium Emmae[5] and Thietmar of Merseburg's contemporary Chronicon[6]), is likely.[7]Norse sources of the high medieval period, most prominently Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla, also give a Polish princess as Cnut's mother, whom they call Gunhild and a daughter of Burislav, the king of Vindland.[13] Since in the Norse sagas the king of Vindland is always Burislav, this is reconcilable with the assumption that her father was Mieszko (not his son Bolesław). Adam of Bremen in Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum is unique in equating Cnut's mother (for whom he also produces no name) with the former queen of Sweden, wife of Eric the Victorious and by this marriage mother of Olof Skötkonung.[14]
To complicate the matter, Heimskringla and other Sagas also have Sweyn marrying Eric's widow, but she is distinctly another person in these texts, by name of Sigrid the Haughty, whom Sweyn only marries after Gunhild, the Slavic princess who bore Cnut, has died.

Different theories regarding the number and ancestry of Sweyn's wives (or wife) have been brought forward (see Sigrid the Haughty and Gunhild). But since Adam is the only source to state the identity of Cnut's with Olof Skötkonung's mother, this is often seen as an error of Adam, and it is often assumed that Sweyn had two wives, the first being Cnut's mother, and the second being the former queen of Sweden.

Cnut's brother Harald was the first born and crown prince.
Some hint of Cnut's childhood can be found in the Flateyjarbók, a 13th-century source, stating at one point that Cnut was taught his soldiery by the chieftain Thorkell the Tall,[16] brother to Sigurd, Jarl of mythical Jomsborg, and the legendary Joms, at their Viking stronghold on the Island of Wollin, off the coast of Pomerania.

His date of birth, like his mother's name, is unknown. Contemporary works such as the Chronicon and the Encomium Emmae, do not mention it. Even so, in a Knútsdrápa by the skald Óttarr svarti, there is a statement that Cnut was "of no great age" when he first went to war.

It also mentions a battle identifiable with Forkbeard's invasion of England, and attack on the city of Norwich, in 1003/04, after the St. Brice's Day massacre of Danes by the English, in 1002. If it is the case that Cnut was part of this, his birthdate may be near 990, or even 980. If not, and the skald's poetic verse envisages another assault, with Forkbeard's conquest of England in 1013/14, it may even suggest a birth date nearer 1000.[

There is a passage of the Encomiast's (as the author of the Encomium
Emmae is known) with a reference to the force Cnut led in his English conquest of 1015/16. Here (see below) it says all the Vikings were of "mature age" under Cnut "the king".
Cnut, with the legend "CNUT REX DÆNOR[UM]" (Cnut, King of Danes)
A description of Cnut can be found within the 13th-century Knýtlinga saga:
Knut was exceptionally tall and strong, and the handsomest of men, all except for his nose, that was thin, high-set, and rather hooked. He had a fair complexion none-the-less, and a fine, thick head of hair. His eyes were better than those of other men, both the handsomer and the keener of their sight.
—Knytlinga Saga]
Hardly anything is known for sure of Cnut's life until the year he was part of a Scandinavian force under his father, King Sweyn; with his invasion of England in summer 1013. It was the climax to a succession of Viking raids spread over a number of decades. With their landing in the Humber [21] the kingdom fell to the Vikings quickly, and near the end of the year King Aethelred fled to Normandy, leaving Sweyn in possession of England. In the winter, Forkbeard was in the process of consolidating his kingship, with Cnut left in charge of the fleet, and the base of the army at Gainsborough.
On the death of Forkbeard after a few months as king, on Candlemas Sunday 3 February 1014, Harald succeeded him as King of Denmark, while Cnut was immediately elected king by the Vikings, and the people of the Danelaw. However, the English nobility took a different view, and the Witenagemot recalled Aethelred from Normandy. The restored king swiftly led an army against Cnut, who fled with his army to Denmark, along the way mutilating the hostages they had taken and abandoning them on the beach at Sandwich.[ Cnut went to Harald and supposedly made the suggestion they might have a joint kingship, although this found no favour with his brother.[23] Harald is thought to have offered Cnut command of his forces for another invasion of England, on the condition he did not continue to press his claim.[ In any case, Cnut was able to assemble a large fleet with which to launch another invasion.[]

Cnut was generally remembered as a wise and successful king of England, although this view may in part be attributable to his good treatment of the Church, keeper of the historic record. Accordingly, we hear of him, even today, as a religious man (see below), despite the fact that he was in an arguably sinful relationship, with two wives, and the harsh treatment he dealt his fellow Christian opponents.
Under his reign, Cnut brought together the English and Danish kingdoms, and the people saw a golden age of dominance across Scandinavia, as well as within the British Isles.[49] His campaigns abroad meant the tables of Viking supremacy were stacked in favour of the English, turning the prows of the longships towards Scandinavia. He reinstated the Laws of King Edgar to allow for the constitution of a Danelaw, and the activity of Scandinavians at large. He also reinstituted the extant laws with a series of proclamations to assuage common grievances brought to his attention. Two significant ones were: On Inheritance in case of Intestacy, and, On Heriots and Reliefs. He strengthened the currency, initiating a series of coins of equal weight to those being used in Denmark and other parts of Scandinavia. This meant the markets grew, and the economy of England was able to spread itself, as well as widen the scope of goods to be bought and sold.

02-18-2012, 12:41 PM

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King of Denmark

In 1018, Harald II died and Cnut went to Denmark to affirm his succession to the Danish crown as Cnut II. In the 1019 letter (see above) he states his intentions to avert attacks against England. It seems there were Danes in opposition to him, and an attack he carried out on the Wends of Pomerania may have had something to do with this. In this expedition at least one of Cnut's English men, Godwin, apparently won the king's trust after a night-time raid he personally led against a Wendish encampment.
His hold on the Danish throne presumably stable, Cnut was back in England in 1020. Ulf Jarl, the husband of his sister Estrid Svendsdatter, was his appointee as regent of Denmark, with the entrustment of his young son by Queen Emma, Harthacnut, whom he had made the crown prince of his kingdom.
Thorkell the Tall's banishment in 1021 may be seen in relation to the attack on the Wends for the death of Olof Skötkonung in 1022, and the succession to the Swedish throne of his son, Anund Jacob, bringing Sweden into alliance with Norway. Thus, there was cause for a demonstration of Danish strength in the Baltic. Jomsborg, the legendary stronghold of the Jomsvikings, thought to be on an island off the coast of Pomerania, was probably the target of Cnut's expedition.[50] After this clear display of Cnut's intentions to dominate Scandinavian affairs, it seems Thorkell was wont to reconcile himself with Cnut in 1023.
When Olaf Haraldsson and Anund Jakob took advantage of Cnut's commitment to England and began to launch attacks against Denmark, Ulf gave the freemen cause to accept Harthacnut, still a child, as king. This was a ruse on Ulf's part since the role he had as the caretaker of Harthacnut consequently gave him the reign of the kingdom. Upon news of these events Cnut set sail for Denmark, to restore himself and deal with Ulf, who then got back in line. In a battle known as the Battle of the Helgeå, Cnut and his men fought the Norwegians and Swedes at the mouth of the river Helgea. 1026 is the likely date for the battle, and the apparent victory left Cnut as the dominant leader in Scandinavia. Ulf the usurper's realignment and participation in the battle did not, in the end, earn him Cnut's forgiveness. Some sources state, at a banquet in Roskilde, the brothers-in-law were playing chess when an argument arose between them, and the next day, Christmas of 1026, one of Cnut's housecarls, with his blessing, killed the jarl, in Trinity Church, the predecessor to Roskilde Cathedral.

Death and succession

Cnut died in 1035, at the Abbey in Shaftesbury, Dorset. His burial was in Winchester, the English capital of the time, and stronghold of the royal house of Wessex, whom the Danes had overthrown more or less two decades before.
In Denmark he was succeeded by Harthacnut, reigning as Cnut III, although with a war in Scandinavia against Magnus I of Norway, Harthacnut was "forsaken (by the English) because he was too long in Denmark",[90] and his mother Queen Emma, previously resident at Winchester with some of her son's housecarls, was made to flee to Bruges, in Flanders; under pressure from supporters of Cnut's other son – after Svein – by Ælfgifu of Northampton. Harold Harefoot – regent in England 1035–37 – succeeded to claim the throne, in 1037, reigning until his death in 1040. Eventual peace in Scandinavia left Harthacnut free to claim the throne himself, in 1040, and regain his mother her place. He brought the crowns of Denmark and England together again, until his death, in 1042. Denmark fell into a period of disorder with the power struggle between the pretender to the throne Sweyn Estridsson, son of Ulf, and the Norwegian king, until Magnus' death in 1047 and restoration of the Danish sovereignty. And the inheritance of England was briefly to return to its Anglo-Saxon lineage.
The house of Wessex was to reign again in Edward the Confessor, whom Harthacnut had brought out of exile in Normandy and made a treaty with. Like in his treaty with Magnus, it was decreed the throne was to go to Edward if Harthacnut died with no legitimate male heir. In 1042, Harthacnut died, and Edward was king. His reign meant Norman influence at Court was on the rise thereafter, and the ambitions of its dukes finally found fruition in 1066, with William the Conqueror's invasion of England, and crowning, fifty years after Cnut was crowned in 1016.
Had the sons of Cnut not died within a decade of him, and his (only known) daughter Cunigund – set to marry Conrad II's son Henry III eight months after his death – not died in Italy before she became empress,[91] Cnut's reign may well have been the foundation for a complete political union between England and Scandinavia