أعظم الناس:ما سر عظمتهم!!..وهل لليتم دور في العظمة؟ - الصفحة 8

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24- قسطنطين ( العظيم)

· ولد قسطنطين في نايسوس (حيث تقع اليوم نيس في صربيا) عام 272 أو 273. والده كان الجنرال الروماني قسطنطين كلوروس ووالدته كانت هيلانة.
· الإمبراطور قسطنطين اعتبر حكمه نقطة تحول أساسية في مسار الإمبراطورية الرومانية إلى الإمبراطورية البيزنطية
· تربى قسطنطين في بلاط دقلديانوس وهرب إلي بريطانيا وهناك نودي به إمبراطورا علي غاليا وأسبانيا وبريطانيا في عام 306م خلفا لوالده. عبر جبال الألب وانتصر علي منافسه مكسنتيوس بن مكسيميانوس شريك دقلديانوس في حكم الغرب عند قنطرة ملفيا على بعد ميل واحد من روما، وقتل هو وجيشه في مياه نهر التيبر في أكتوبر عام 312م.[1] وهذا نص قصه حياته كما حفظتها لنا الكنيسه الفبطيه:- 28 شهر برمهات نياحة الملك قسطنطين الكبير (28 برمهات) في مثل هذا اليوم من سنة 53 ش (337 م) تنيح الإمبراطور قسطنطين الكبير. وكان اسم أبيه قونسطا (1) قسطنديوس خلورس (الأخضر) وأمه هيلانه وكان أبوه ملكا علي بيزنطية ومكسيميانوس علي روما ودقلديانوس علي إنطاكية ومصر وكان والده قونسطا وثنيا إلا أنه كان صالحا محبا للخير رحوما شفوقا. واتفق أنه مضي إلى الرها وهناك رأي هيلانة وأعجبته فتزوجها وكانت مسيحية فحملت منه بقسطنطين هذا. ثم تركها في الرها وعاد إلى بيزنطية فولدت قسطنطين وربته تربية حسنة وأدبته بكل أدب وكانت تبث في قلبه الرحمة والشفقة علي المسيحيين ولم تجسر أن تعمده ولا ان تعلمه أنها مسيحية إلى ان كبر وأصبح فارسا وذهب إلى أبيه ففرح به لما رأي فيه من الحكمة والمعرفة والفروسية وبعد وفاة أبيه تسلم المملكة ونشر العدل والأنصاف. ومنع المظالم فخضع الكل له وأحبوه وعم عدله سائر البلاد. فأرسل إليه أكابر روما طالبين أن ينقذهم من ظلم مكسيميانوس. فزحف بجنده إلى إنقاذهم في حرب دارت رحاها علي مكسيمانوس الذي ارتد هاربا وعند عبوره جسر نهر التيبر سقط به فهلك هو وأغلب جنوده. ودخل قسطنطين روما فاستقبله أهلها بالفرح والتهليل وكان شعراؤها يمدحون الصليب وينعتونه بمخلص مدينتهم. ثم عيدوا للصليب سبعة أيام وأصبح قسطنطين ملكا علي الشرق والغرب.

02-19-2012, 12:00 PM

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· Constantine I (c. 272-337), Roman Emperor
Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus;[3] c. 27 February 272[2] – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. Well known for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, Constantine and co-Emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious tolerance of all religions throughout the empire.
The foremost general of his time, Constantine defeated the emperors Maxentius and Licinius during civil wars. He also fought successfully against the Franks, Alamanni, Visigoths, and Sarmatians during his reign – even resettling parts of Dacia which had been abandoned during the previous century. Constantine built a new imperial residence in place of Byzantium, naming it New Rome. However, in Constantine's honour, people called it Constantinople, which would later be the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire for over one thousand years. Because of this, he is thought of as the founder of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Sources

As the emperor who used Christianity to empower his government throughout the Roman Empire and moved the capital to the banks of the Bosporus, Constantine was a ruler of major historical importance, but he has always been a controversial figure.
Early life
Flavius Valerius Constantinus, as he was originally named, was born in the city of Naissus, Moesia, in present-day Niš, Serbia, on the 27th of February of an uncertain year, probably near 272.
His father was Flavius Constantius, a native of Moesia (later Dacia Ripensis).
(Constantius I (Latin: Marcus Flavius Valerius Constantius Herculius Augustus; c. 31 March 250 – 25 July 306), commonly known as Constantius Chlorus, was Roman Emperor from 293 to 306).
Constantius was a tolerant and politically skilled man. Constantine probably spent little time with his father.
Constantius was an officer in the Roman army in 272, part of the Emperor Aurelian's imperial bodyguard. Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum, in 284 or 285.
Constantine's mother was Helena (a Bithynian Greek), It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine.
(Saint Helena (Latin: Flavia Iulia Helena Augusta) also known as Saint Helen, Helena Augusta or Helena of Constantinople (ca. 246/50 – 18 August 330) was the consort of Emperor Constantius, and the mother of Emperor Constantine I.
The precise legal nature of the relationship between Helena and Constantius is also unknown.
The sources are equivocal on the point, sometimes calling Helena Constantius' "wife", and sometimes, following the dismissive propaganda of Constantine's rival Maxentius, calling her his "concubine".
Helena gave birth to the future emperor Constantine I on 27 February of an uncertain year soon after 270 (probably around 272) At the time, she was in Naissus (Niš, Serbia). In order to obtain a wife more consonant with his rising status, Constantius divorced Helena some time before 289, when he married Theodora, Maximian's daughter.
(The narrative sources date the marriage to 293, but the Latin panegyric of 289 refers to the couple as already married). Helena and her son were dispatched to the court of Diocletian at Nicomedia, where Constantine grew to be a member of the inner circle. Helena never remarried and lived for a time in obscurity, though close to her only son, who had a deep regard and affection for her.
Constantine was proclaimed Augustus of the Roman Empire in 306 by Constantius' troops after the latter had died, and following his elevation his mother was brought back to the public life in 312, returning to the imperial court. She appears in the Eagle Cameo portraying Constantine's family, probably commemorating the birth of Constantine's son Constantine II in the summer of 316.[20] She received the title of Augusta in 325 and died in 330 with her son at her side

02-19-2012, 04:37 PM

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25- سيروس العظيم

· Cyrus the Great (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), founder and ruler of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire

Cyrus II of Persia (Old Persian: Kuruš (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC, commonly known as Cyrus the Great, also known as Cyrus the Elder, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East, expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia, parts of Europe and Caucasus. From the Mediterranean sea and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east, Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world had yet seen.

Early life

The best-known date for the birth of Cyrus the Great is either 600-599 BC or 576-575 BC. Little is known of his early years, as there are only a few sources known to detail that part of his life, and they have been damaged or lost.
Herodotus's story of Cyrus's early life belongs to a genre of legends in which abandoned children of noble birth, such as Oedipus and Romulus and Remus, return to claim their royal positions.
Similar to other culture's heroes and founders of great empires, folk traditions abound regarding his family background. According to Herodotus, he was the grandson of the Median king Astyages and was brought up by humble herding folk.
In another version, he was presented as the son of a poor family that worked in the Median court.
These folk stories are, however, contradicted by Cyrus's own testimony, according to which he was preceded as king of Persia by his father, grandfather and great-grandfather.
After the birth of Cyrus the Great, Astyages had a dream that his Magi interpreted as a sign that his grandson would eventually overthrow him. He then ordered his steward Harpagus to kill the infant. Harpagus, morally unable to kill a newborn, summoned the Mardian Mitradates (which the historian Nicolaus of Damascus calls Atradates), a royal bandit herdsman from the mountainous region bordering the Saspires,] and ordered him to leave the baby to die in the mountains.
Luckily, the herdsman and his wife (whom Herodotus calls Cyno in Greek, and Spaca-o in Median) took pity and raised the child as their own, passing off their recently stillborn infant as the murdered Cyrus.
For the origin of Cyrus the Great's mother, Herodotus identifies Mandane of Media, and Ctesias insists that she is fully Persian but gives no name, while Nicolaus gives the name "Argoste" as Atradates's wife; whether this figure represents Cyno or Cambyses's unnamed Persian queen has yet to be determined. It is also noted that Strabo has said that Cyrus was originally named Agradates by his stepparents; therefore, it is probable that, when reuniting with his original family, following the naming customs, Cyrus's father, Cambyses I, names him Cyrus after his grandfather, who was Cyrus I.
Herodotus claims that when Cyrus the Great was ten years old, it was obvious that Cyrus was not a herdsman's son, stating that his behavior was too noble. Astyages interviewed the boy and noticed that they resembled each other. Astyages ordered Harpagus to explain what he had done with the baby, and, after Harpagus confessed that he had not killed the boy, Astyages tricked him into eating his own broiled and chopped up son.
Astyages was more lenient with Cyrus and allowed him to return to his biological parents, Cambyses and Mandane.
While Herodotus's description may be a legend, it does give insight into the figures surrounding Cyrus the Great's early life.

02-19-2012, 04:40 PM

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Cyrus The Great
Cyrus the Great (ca.600 - 529 BCE) was a towering figure in the history of mankind. As the "father of the Iranian nation", he was the first world leader to be referred to as "The Great". Cyrus founded the first world empire - and the second Iranian dynastic empire (the Achaemenids) - after defeating the Median dynasty and uniting the Medes with the other major Iranian tribe, the Persians.
Etymology and lineage
The name "Cyrus" (a transliteration of the Greek Kυρoς) is the Greek version of the Old-Persian kûruš or Khûrvaš meaning "sun-like": the noun khûr denotes "sun" and -vaš is a suffix of likeness. In the Cyrus cylinder (see below), the great king declares his ancestry as a Persian king. The first leader of the Achaemenid dynasty was king Achaemenes of Anshan (ca.700BCE). He was succeeded by his son Teispes of Anshan and inscriptions indicate that when the latter died, two of his sons shared the throne: Cyrus I of Anshan and Ariaramnes of Persia. They were succeeded by their respective sons: Cambyses I and Arsames. Arsames was the ancestor of Darius the Great, while Cambyses was the father of Cyrus the Great. Mandane, Cyrus' mother, was the daughter of king Astyages, who was the last emperor of the Median dynastic empire (728-550BCE). Cyrus became king of Anshan after his father's death in 559BCE, and initially reigned as Median vassal king of the Persian tribes. He established his residence at Pasargadae in Pars province, the centre of the Pasargadae tribe, to which the Achaemenid clan belonged. Little is known of Cyrus' early life as the few known sources have been damaged or lost. According to the ancient historians, Astyages was told in a dream that his grandson, the baby Cyrus, would overthrow him. To avoid this he ordered that the baby be killed. However the official delegated with the task gave the baby to a shepherd instead. When Cyrus was ten years old, the deception was discovered by Astyages, but because of the boy's outstanding qualities he was allowed to live in exile with his mother. Cyrus then revolted against Astyages in 554BCE and in 550BCE the prophecy came true when Cyrus entered Ecbatana (modern-day Hamadan), effectively conquering the Median Empire. Upon his victory over his grandfather he founded a government for his new kingdom, incorporating both Median and Persian nobles as civilian officials. He thus began to build the first world empire.

'Cyrus' Empire Building
As the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, one of Cyrus' objectives was to gain power over the Mediterranean coast and secure Asia Minor. Croesus of Lydia, Nabonidus of Babylonia and Amasis II of Egypt joined in alliance with Sparta to try and thwart Cyrus - but this was to no avail. Hyrcania, Parthia and Armenia were already part of the Median Kingdom. Cyrus moved further east to annex Drangiana, Arachosia, Margiana and Bactria to his territories. After crossing the Oxus, he reached the Jaxartes. There, he built fortified towns with the object of defending the farthest frontier of his kingdom against the Iranian nomadic tribes of Central Asia such as the Scythians. The exact limits of Cyrus' eastern conquests are not known, but it is possible that they extended as far as the Peshawar region in modern Pakistan. After his eastern victories, he repaired to the west and invaded Babylon. On 12 October 539BCE Cyrus, "without spilling a drop of blood", annexed the Chaldaean empire of Babylonia - and on October 29 he entered Babylon, arrested Nabonidus and assumed the title of "King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, King of the four corners of the world". Almost immediately he then extended his control over the Arabian peninsula and the Levant also quickly submitted to Persian rule. Although Cyrus did not conquer Egypt, by 535BCE all the lands up to the Egyptian borders had acceded to Persian dominance. Newly conquered territories had a measure of political independence, being ruled by satraps. These (usually local) governors took full responsibility for the administration, legislation and cultural activities of each province. According to Xenophon, Cyrus created the first postal system in the world, and this must have helped with intra-Empire communications. Babylon, Ecbatana, Pasargadae and Susa were used as Cyrus' command centres. Cyrus' spectacular conquests triggered the age of Empire Building, as carried out by his successors as well as by the later Greeks and Romans.
Cyrus' religion
Almost nothing is known about Cyrus' personal beliefs, but Xenophon reports to us that in religious matters he followed the guidance of the Magians at his court. Although this is not universally agreed, Mary Boyce has argued that Cyrus was indeed a Zoroastrian and that he thus followed in the footsteps of his ancestors, from when they were Median vassals in Anshan. She has pointed out that the fire altars and the mausoleum at Pasargadae demonstrate Zoroastrian practices, and has cited Greek texts as evidence that Zoroastrian priests held positions of authority at Cyrus' court.
Death
Cuneiform records from Babylon suggest that Cyrus died on 4 December 530BCE. However, according to Herodotus, Cyrus was killed near the Aral Sea in July or August 529BCE during a campaign to protect the northeastern borders of his empire from incursions by the Massagetae. Tomyris, the queen of the Massagetae, had assumed control of her nation's forces after Cyrus had defeated and killed her son Spargapises. She led the attack on the Iranian forces, who suffered heavy casualties as well as losing their leader, Cyrus. After the battle, Tomyris apparently ordered the body of Cyrus to be found so that she could avenge the death of her son. She then dipped Cyrus' head in blood or by some accounts ordered his head to be put into a wine-skin filled with human blood. At Cyrus' death, his son Cambyses II succeeded him. He attacked the Massagetae to recover Cyrus's ravaged body, before burying it at Pasargadae.
The cylinder of Cyrus the Great
The Cyrus cylinder was discovered in 1878CE at the site of Babylon. It is inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform. Now housed in the British Museum, it includes a detailed account by Cyrus of his conquest of Babylon in 539BCE and his subsequent humane treatment of his conquered subjects. It has been hailed as the world's first declaration of human rights. The (incomplete) inscription on the cylinder starts by describing the criminal deeds of the Babylonian king Nabonidus; as well as how Marduk, the Babylonian god, had looked for a new king and chosen Cyrus. It continues with the famous: "I am Cyrus, king of the world, the great king, the powerful king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the world" After a description of Cyrus' ancestry and of royal protocol, it goes on to explain how Cyrus established peace and abolished forced labour: "The people of Babylon . . . the shameful yoke was removed from them" The inscription continues by detailing reparative building activities in Babylon as well as asking for prayers for Cyrus. It makes specific reference to the Jews, who have been brought to Babylon - and who Cyrus supported in leaving for their homeland. Further demonstrating his religious tolerance, Cyrus restored the local cults by allowing the gods to return to their shrines. The cylinder describes the Great King not as a conqueror, but as a liberator and the legitimate successor to the crown of Mesopotamia. The same text has also been found, in a more complete version, in an inscription discovered in the ancient city of Ur, in Mesopotamia. Both documents corroborate many of the details in Ezra 1:1-5 describing Cyrus supporting the Jews in returning to Judea from captivity to rebuild the Temple in 537BCE. Isaiah 45:1-13 also backs up the idea of Cyrus as a benign and chosen ruler. Before the discovery of the cylinder, many sceptical historians believed that the idea of a Zoroastrian emperor like Cyrus the Great allowing a conquered people like the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild their Temple was simply not credible and could only be Persian propaganda. Nevertheless, the Cyrus Cylinder, alongside the Biblical and other historical statements, seems to substantiate the idea that Cyrus not only allowed many of the nations he conquered to practice their various religious beliefs - an unprecedented tolerance - but that he even actively assisted captive peoples, including the Jews, to return to their lands of origin. This support was not only political but even financial - as he gave grants both from the Imperial treasury and also from his own personal fortune. The Cylinder has especial resonance for the Iranian peoples and is an integral part of Iran's cultural heritage and national identity. Antedating the 1789 French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen by more than two millennia, it can also be considered as a world treasure - and the first international declaration of human rights. The text was translated into all the United Nations' official languages in 1971.
Cyrus' Legacy
Cyrus the Great is famed as a triumphant conqueror, a superb warrior, and the founder of the greatest empire the world has ever seen. However, with the Cyrus Cylinder and a range of Jewish texts, plus extensive writings by Xenophon, Cyrus is generally more admired as a liberator than a conqueror. Cyrus the Great was mentioned twenty-two times in the Old Testament, where he is unconditionally praised. This followed his active liberation of the Jews from Babylon in 539BCE and his support as more than 40,000 Jews then chose to return to their homeland. Cyrus then funded the subsequent rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem. Cyrus was also eulogized by many other writers and his actual or legendary exploits were used as moral instruction or as a source of inspiration for political philosophies. For example, the Greek author and soldier Xenophon believed him to be the ideal ruler, and in the Cyropedia - often considered Xenophon's masterpiece - he offers a fictionalised biography of the great man. This is more "a treatise on political virtue and social organisation" than a history. It was influential in ancient times and then again in the Renaissance. It may have been composed in response to Plato's The Republic, and Plato's Laws seems to refer back to it. Scipio Africanus is said to have always carried a copy of the Cyropedia with him.[1] Later on, in the Renaissance, Spenser, in his The Faerie Queene (1596), says: "For this cause is Xenophon preferred before Plato, for that the one, in the exquisite depth of his judgment, formed a Commune wealth, such as it should be; but the other in the person of Cyrus, and the Persians, fashioned a government, such as might best be: So much more profitable and gracious is doctrine by ensample, then by rule."[2] The English philosopher Sir Thomas Browne named his 1658 discourse The Garden of Cyrus after the benevolent ruler. This dense treatise of hermetic philosophy may be a Royalist criticism upon the autocratic rule of Cromwell. Cyrus' name and his doctrine is still cited and celebrated into modern times. On 12th October 1971 Iran marked the 2500th anniversary of Cyrus' founding of the Persian Empire . The then Shah of Iran, in his speech opening the celebrations, said: "O Cyrus, great King, King of Kings, Achaemenian King, King of the land of Iran. I, the Shahanshah of Iran, offer thee salutations from myself and from my nation. Rest in peace, for we are awake, and we will always stay awake." In 1994, a replica of a bas relief depicting Cyrus the Great was erected in a park in Sydney, Australia . This monument is intended as a symbol for multiculturalism, and to express the coexistence and peaceful cohabitation of people from different cultures and backgrounds.
By pursuing a policy of generosity, instead of repression, Cyrus demonstrated his Greatness. So successful were his policies of conquest, mercifulness and assimilation that the empire continued to thrive for some 200 years after his death. Cyrus' compassionate principles continue to resonate today: his religious and cultural tolerance and commitment to the liberation of enslaved peoples remain an aspiration in our troubled modern world.

02-19-2012, 09:03 PM

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26 - داريوس الاول ( الكبير )

دارا الأول، داريوس الأول Δαρεῖος، داريوش الأول، ثلاثة أسماء لشخص واحد، كما يسميه الفرس بداريوش الكبير، الاسم الأول بالعربية والثاني باللغة اليونانية أما الثالث فهو بالفارسية وهو الأصح.
الملك الأخميني الثالث أخميني فارسي حكم 521 ق.م –486 ق.م صهر سميردس، وابن ويشتاسب، وحفيد أرساميس.
اقترن تأسيس الإمبراطورية الأخمينية باسمه، فاستطاع أن يتغلب على الملك الميدي (كاوماتا) وكان ذلك عام 522 ق.م، ومنذ ذلك التاريخ بدأ عصر الأخمينيون وتوالي العديد من الملوك على حكم الإمبراطورية وخلفه ابنه خشایارشا الأول. في فترة حكمه أصدر داريوش أمر ببناء مجموعة قصور فارس برسيبوليس في شمال مدينة شيراز.[1]
تولى داريوس الشاب ذو العشرين ربيعا مقاليد الحكم لفترة تزيد على جيل كامل، بدأها بتسجيل تاريخ بلاده على عمود ضخم، وتلى ذلك زواجه من أتوسا ابنة كيروس وأرملة قمبيزيس. وكان إنجازه الثالث هو إعادة تنظيم الإمبراطورية مثل شق الطرق ورصفها لتسهيل المراسلات البريدية وتلقى الأخبار من جواسيسه بشكل سريع. ومن أهم أعماله التقسيم الإداري لولاياته التي وصلت إلى 20 ولاية بحيث ضم المستوطنات الأيونية إلى ولاية ليديا بآسيا الصغرى.
مات إثر مرض عام 486 ق.م ودفن في مكان يعرف ب نقش رستم قرب بلدة مرودشت في محافظة فارس والتي مركزها مدينة شيراز.[3].
قبل أن يتوجة داريوش إلى مصر قضى ثلاث سنوات في التعرف على عادات المصريين ليتقرب منهم.

داريوش الأول، ويسميه الفرس داريوش الكبير، (ويسميه العرب: دارا الأول، واليونان: داريوس الأول Δαρεῖος) أعظم ملوك الامبراطورية الفارسية الأخمينية، اشتهر بعبقريته الإدارية ومشروعات البناء العظيمة. حكم 521–486 ق.م. صهر سميردس، وابن ويشتاسب ،وحفيد أرساميس.

النشأة

هو ابن هيستابس، وينتسب إلى أحد فروع السلالة الأخمينية، اتصف بالحكمة والعقل منذ شبابه، تولى بعض المناصب، واشترك في الحملة على مصر، وعهد إليه بعد موت قمبيز بإعادة الجيش إلى العاصمة الفارسية، وهناك نجح مع أصدقائه وبعض رجال الدين من الكهنة الزرادشتيين في التغلب على ثورة الكاهن جوماثا (سمرديس المزعوم). ثم قتل أخوه أرتفرنيس ملك الفرس بارديا. بعد ذلك استولى داريوس على العرش.
اندلعت الثورات في كل أنحاء الامبراطورية بعد موت قمبيز، وكان عليه إخضاعها الواحدة تلو الأخرى. بدأ بإخضاع الثورة في عيلام، بعد تمرد أترين قريب حاكمها السابق، فأرسل داريوس جيشاً إلى الشوش، فقبض على المتمرد وقتله.
أما في بابل فقد أعلن أحد أبناء نابونيد الثورة، وأعلن نفسه ملكاً عليها باسم نبوخذ نصر الثالث، فتوجه داريوس على رأس جيش إلى بابل، وقد لاقى الجيش مصاعب كبيرة في عبور نهر دجلة نظراً لقوة الأسطول البابلي، لكن داريوس قام بهجوم مباغت، فعبر النهر وهزم البابليين الذين لجؤوا إلى داخل مدينتهم وتحصنوا بها، ويشير هيرودوت أن حصار بابل استمر عشرين شهراً، ولم يستطع داريوس أن يدخلها إلا بخدعة. وربما يبالغ هيرودوت في مدة حصارها، لأن داريوس كان يعلم جيداً، أن السيطرة على بابل هي المفتاح للقضاء على كل الثورات الأخرى، ولذلك ركز اهتمامه لإخضاع المدينة، التي استسلمت في شباط 521ق.م.
وبعد ذلك هاجم داريوس مادي (ميديا)، وهزم جيشها، وقبض على ملكها وأعدمه شنقاً في همذان، كما عهد لبعض قادته في إخماد ثورة بارثيا (خراسان) وكركان، وتم له ذلك.
وهكذا أخمد داريوس كل الثورات، وتمكن بما اتصف به من إرادة حديدية وقوة في التغلب على كل المشكلات التي واجهته، وأعاد توحيد الامبراطورية من جديد، وقد سجل داريوس انتصاراته هذه بالتفصيل في نقش « بهستون » الشهير الذي دون بثلاث لغات، الفارسية القديمة، والبابلية، والعيلامية، فيقول: «خلال سنة واحدة، بعد أن أصبحت ملكاً خضت غمار تسعة عشر معركة، وبإرادة أهورامزدا انتصرت فيها جميعاً وأسرت تسعة ملوك».
واستطاعت جيوش داريوس أن تخمد ثورة بمصر سنة 519 ق.م. وأن تحتل تراقيا بجنوب شرقي أوروبا سنة 513 ق.م. بعدها بسنوات، احتلت القوات الفارسية ما يسمى الآن بجنوبي باكستان. حكم داريوس إمبراطوريته الشاسعة بنجاح عن طريق تقسيمها إلى أقاليم كبيرة. من بين الأعمال التي قام بها العمال الذين اختارهم داريوس لإدارة هذه الأقاليم، الزيادة في الضرائب المحلية من أجل الخزائن الملكية، ومد داريوس بالجند.
استطاع ان يتغلب على الملك الميدي (كاوماتا) وكان ذلك عام 522 قبل الميلاد ومنذ ذلك التاريخ بدأ العصر الأخمينيون وتوالي العديد من الملوك على حكم الامبراطورية و خلفه ابنه خشایارشا الأول. في فترة حكمه أصدر داريوش أمر بيناء مجموعة قصور فارس تخت جمشيد في شمال مدينة شيراز. [1]

تولى داريوس الشاب ذو العشرين ربيعا مقاليد الحكم لفترة تزيد على جيل كامل، بدأها بتسجيل تاريخ بلاده على عمود ضخم ، وتلي ذلك زواجه من أتوسا ابنة كيروس وأرملة قمبيزيس . وكان إنجازه الثالث هو إعادة تنظيم الإمبراطورية مثل شق الطرق ورصفها لتسهيل المراسلات البريدية وتلقى الأخبار من جواسيسه بشكل سريع . ومن أهم أعماله التقسيم الإداري لولاياته التي وصلت إلى ألـ 20 بحيث ضم المستوطنات الايونية إلى ولاية ليديا بآسيا الصغرى .

02-19-2012, 09:04 PM

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Darius I (558-486 BC), called "the Great," was a Persian king. A great conqueror and the chief organizer of the Persian Empire, he is best known for the unsuccessful attack on Greece which ended at Marathon.
A member of a collateral branch of the Achaemenidian royal family, Darius apparently was not close to the throne when Cambyses died in 522 B.C. The story of Darius's accession is told most fully by the Greek Herodotus, whose version clearly reflects the official account set up by Darius's own order in the famous rock inscription at Behistun.
According to Herodotus, Cambyses had had his brother Smerdis (Bardiya) executed, but while Cambyses was absent in Egypt, a Magian priest named Gaumata, trusting in a chance resemblance, put himself forward as Smerdis and seized the throne. Cambyses started back but died en route, and the false Smerdis was generally accepted. Darius, with the aid of a few who knew that Smerdis was dead, murdered Gaumata and in his own person restored the royal line.
Organization of the Empire
Though Darius was an excellent soldier and extended his empire east, north, and into Europe, he saw himself as an organizer and lawgiver rather than as a mere conqueror. Little of his work was startlingly original, but the blending of the old and new and the interlocked ordering of the whole gave his work importance. He divided the empire into 20 huge provinces called satrapies, each under a royally appointed governor called a satrap who had administrative, military, financial, and judicial control in his province. To check on such powerful subordinates, Darius also appointed the satrap's second-in-command, having him report to the King separately. Standing garrisons under commanders independent of the satrap were stationed strategically. However, since all these officials were more or less permanent, there remained the possibility that all three might conspire to plot revolt. Accordingly, a further set of royal officials--inspectors called the King's "eyes" or "ears"--were frequently sent out.
Since in so huge an empire--it covered some 1 million square miles--there was always the problem of communication and transportation, Darius established a system of well-maintained all-weather roads and a royal courier system with posthouses and regular relays of horses and riders. The trip from Sardis in western Asia Minor to Susa in Persia normally took 3 months; a royal message could cover it in a week.
Darius also regulated the tribute, hitherto collected irregularly as needed, on a fixed annual basis according to the wealth of each satrapy. Though hardly low, this tribute does not appear to have been burdensome. He also instituted the first official Persian coinage.
Military Organization
Militarily the empire was organized on the satrap system, but the results were less happy. Aside from the resident garrisons and the royal bodyguard there was no standing army. At need, satraps involved were ordered to raise a quota of men and bring them, armed and ready, to an appointed assembly point. Inescapably, a Persian army was thus long on numbers but short on uniformity; each contingent was armed and trained in its local fashion and spoke its native tongue. Persian infantry was usually of very poor quality; the cavalry, provided by the Persians themselves, the Medes, and the eastern steppe dwellers, was generally quite good. The Persian fleet was levied in the same manner as the army, but since the Mediterranean maritime peoples all copied from each other, there was little problem of diversity. The fleet's weakness was that, being raised entirely from among subject peoples, it had no real loyalty.
Darius's Religion
Darius, himself a firm supporter of Ahura Mazda, the Zoroastrian god, said in the Behistun inscription that Ahura Mazda "gave" him his kingdoms, and with him Zoroastrianism became something like the national religion of the Persians. For the empire, however, he continued Cyrus's policy of toleration of local cults, and this mildness became and remained, except perhaps under Xerxes, a distinctive feature of Persian rule.
War with the Greeks
Darius's first European campaign, about 513 B.C., was aimed not at Greece but north toward the Danube. Herodotus recorded that Darius intended to conquer the complete circuit of the Black Sea and that he was turned back north of the Danube by the native Scythians' scorched-earth policy. This may be, or it may be that Darius never intended any permanent conquest north of the Danube and that Herodotus turned a limited success into a grandiose failure in order to make all Persian operations in Europe at least partly unsuccessful. Darius did secure the approaches to Greece and the control of the grain route through the Bosporus.
The next act in the Greco-Persian drama was the so-called lonian Revolt (499-494B.C.), an uprising against Persia of most of the Greeks of Asia Minor headed by the Ionians, and particularly by the city of Miletus. Though the revolt was put down by Darius's generals, its seriousness is indicated by its length and by the fact that the Ionians' appeal to the Greek homeland was answered, at least in part, by Athens and Eretria.
Darius had to take the Greek matter seriously. Not only did he have the duty of avenging the burning of his city of Sardis during the revolt, but he must have become convinced that to ensure the quiet of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor he would have to extend his rule also over their brothers across the Aegean. After the collapse of the revolt, the attempt of Darius's son-in-law, Mandonius, to carry the war into Greece itself ended when the Persian fleet was wrecked in a storm off Mt. Athos (492 B.C.).
Battle of Marathon
Perhaps Mardonius's ill-fated venture was really an attempt to conquer all Greece; the next effort certainly was not. Darius sent a naval expedition--he himself never set eyes on Greece--against only Athens and Eretria (490 B.C.). The attack was perfectly well known to be coming, but the Greeks had their customary difficulties of cooperation, and Eretria, unsupported, fell and was burned in revenge for Sardis. Athens appealed to the Grecian states, but only 1,000 men from little Plataea reached Athens.
The Persians landed on the small plain of Marathon northeast of Athens, and the Greeks took up station in easily defendable nearby hills out of reach of the Persian cavalry. After some days' waiting, the Persians began to reembark, perhaps for a dash on Athens. The Greeks, led by Miltiades, were forced to attack, which they did with a lengthened front to avoid encirclement by the more numerous Persians. In this first major encounter between European and Asian infantry, the Greek closely knit, heavily armed phalanx won decisively. The Persian survivors sailed at once for Athens, but Miltiades rushed his forces back, and the Persians arrived to see the Greeks lined up before the city. Abandoning action, they sailed home, and the campaign of Marathon was over.
Though to the Western world Marathon was a victory of enormous significance, to the Persians it was only a moderately serious border setback. Yet this defeat and peace in Asia Minor called for the conquest of all Greece, and Darius began the mighty preparations. A revolt in Egypt, however, distracted him, and he died in 486 B.C., leaving the next attack for his son Xerxes.